African Union

== Regional conflicts and peacekeeping ==
{{main|African Standby Force}}
One of the objectives of the AU is to "promote peace, security, and stability on the continent".<ref>Article 3(f) of the Constitutive Act.</ref> Among its principles is "Peaceful resolution of conflicts among Member States of the Union through such appropriate means as may be decided upon by the Assembly".<ref>Article 4(e) of the Constitutive Act.</ref> The primary body charged with implementing these objectives and principles is the Peace and Security Council. The PSC has the power, among other things, to authorise peace support missions, to impose sanctions in case of unconstitutional change of government, and to "take initiatives and action it deems appropriate" in response to potential or actual conflicts. The PSC is a decision-making body in its own right, and its decisions are binding on member states.

Article 4(h) of the Constitutive Act, repeated in article 4 of the Protocol to the Constitutive Act on the PSC, also recognises the right of the Union to intervene in a member state in circumstances of war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity. Any decision to intervene in a member state under article 4 of the Constitutive Act will be made by the Assembly on the recommendation of the PSC.

Since it first met in 2004, the PSC has been active in relation to the crises in Darfur, Comoros, Somalia, [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], Burundi, Ivory Coast and other countries. It has adopted resolutions creating the AU peacekeeping operations in Somalia and Darfur, and imposing sanctions against persons undermining peace and security (such as travel bans and asset freezes against the leaders of the rebellion in Comoros). The council is in the process of overseeing the establishment of a "standby force" to serve as a permanent African peacekeeping force.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Touray|first=Omar Alieu|title=The African Union the first ten years|publisher=Rowman and Littlefield|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4422-6897-5|pages=Maryland}}</ref> Institute for Security Studies, South Africa, March 2008. <!-- Is this supposed to be a ref?-->

The founding treaty of the AU also called for the establishment of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA), including the [[African Standby Force]] (ASF), which is to be deployed in emergencies. That means, in cases of genocide or other serious human-rights violations, an ASF mission can be launched even against the wishes of the government of the country concerned, as long as it is approved by the AU General Assembly. In the past AU peacekeeping missions, the concept was not yet applied, forces had to be mobilised from member states. The AU is planning on putting the concept into practise by 2015 at the earliest.<ref name=dandc.eu/>{{update inline|reason=Was this done? If not, how did the plans change?|date=July 2018}}

=== Darfur, Sudan ===
{{main|African Union Mission in Sudan}}
[[File:Eritrea - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|[[South Sudanese independence referendum, 2011]]]]
In response to the ongoing [[Darfur conflict]] in Sudan, the AU has deployed 7,000 peacekeepers, many from Rwanda and Nigeria, to [[Darfur]]. While a donor's conference in Addis Ababa in 2005 helped raise funds to sustain the peacekeepers through that year and into 2006, in July 2006 the AU said it would pull out at the end of September when its mandate expires.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5124608.stm |work=BBC News |title=AU Darfur mission 'to end soon' |date=28 June 2006 |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=26 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826204932/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5124608.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Critics of the AU peacekeepers, including [[Eric Reeves]], have said these forces are largely ineffective due to lack of funds, personnel, and expertise. Monitoring an area roughly the size of France has made it even more difficult to sustain an effective mission. In June 2006, the [[United States Congress]] appropriated US$173&nbsp;million for the AU force. Some, such as the [[Genocide Intervention Network]], have called for UN or [[NATO]] intervention to augment and/or replace the AU peacekeepers. The UN has considered deploying a force, though it would not likely enter the country until at least October 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2007/sc9089.doc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070815184454/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/sc9089.doc.htm|url-status=dead |archive-date=15 August 2007 |title=Security Council Authorises Deployment of United Nations-African Union 'Hybrid' Peace Operation in Bid To Resolve Darfur Conflict |publisher=United Nations |access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> The under-funded and badly equipped AU mission was set to expire on 31 December 2006 but was extended to 30 June 2007 and merged with the [[United Nations African Union Mission in Darfur]] in October 2007. In July 2009 the African Union ceased cooperation with the [[International Criminal Court]], refusing to recognise the international arrest warrant it had issued against Sudan's leader, [[Omar al-Bashir]], who was indicted in 2008 for [[war crime]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8134718.stm |work=BBC News |title=African move on Bashir dismissed |date=5 July 2009 |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=25 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225224733/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8134718.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The AU struggled to have a strategic role in the independence talks and the reconciliation process of [[South Sudan]], due to overwhelming interests of African and non-African powers, its influence is still limited and not consistent.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sulaiman |first=Abubkar o. |author2=Agoha, Ifeanyi Chuckwu |title=South Sudan Negotiated Independence: A Critique of African Union's Role |journal=European Journal of Sustainable Development |date=1 October 2013 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=145–154 |doi=10.14207/ejsd.2013.v2n3p145|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Somalia ===
{{main|African Union Mission to Somalia}}
[[File:AMISOM Kismayo Advance 15 (8049962361).jpg|thumb|Kenyan soldiers and fighters of the [[Ras Kamboni Brigades]], a Somali government-allied militia, near [[Kismayo]], Somalia, 2012]]
From the early 1990s up until 2000, [[Somalia]] was without a functioning central government. A peace agreement aimed at ending the [[Somali Civil War|civil war]] that broke out following the collapse of the [[Siad Barre]] regime was signed in 2006 after many years of peace talks. However, the new government was almost immediately threatened by further violence. In February 2007, the African Union (AU) and European Union (EU) worked together to establish the [[African Union Mission to Somalia (2007-present)|African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM)]]. The purpose of AMISOM was to create a foundation that would hopefully provide aid to some of Somalia's most vulnerable and keep the peace in the region. They are tasked with everything from protecting federal institutions to facilitating humanitarian relief operations. Much of the AU's opposition comes from an Islamic extremist group named [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|al-Shabaab]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Noel |date=2014 |title=Peacekeepers Fighting a Counterinsurgency Campaign: A Net Assessment of the African Union Mission in Somalia |journal=Studies in Conflict and Terrorism |volume=37 |issue=11 |pages=936–954 |doi=10.1080/1057610X.2014.952260 |s2cid=109822861 }}</ref> To temporarily shore up the government's military base, starting in March 2007, AU soldiers began arriving in [[Mogadishu]] as part of a peacekeeping force that was intended by the AU to eventually be 8,000 strong.<ref name="bbc2115736">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2115736.stm |work=BBC News |title=African Union replaces dictators' club |date=8 July 2002 |access-date=23 April 2010 |first=Paul |last=Reynolds |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601025542/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2115736.stm |archive-date=1 June 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Eritrea recalled its ambassadors to the African Union on 20 November 2009<ref>[http://www.afrol.com/articles/10577 Afro News] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824072414/http://www.afrol.com/articles/10577 |date=24 August 2011 }} ''Eritrea breaks with African Union'', 20 November 2009.</ref> after the African Union called on the United Nations Security Council to impose sanctions on them due to their alleged support of Somali Islamists attempting to topple the [[Transitional Federal Government]] of Somalia, the internationally recognised government of Somalia which holds Somalia's seat on the African Union.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8064939.stm "AU calls for sanctions on Eritrea"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107104635/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8064939.stm |date=7 November 2017 }} BBC.co.uk 23 May 2009. Retrieved 23 May 2009</ref> On 22 December 2009, the United Nations Security Council passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1907|UNSCR 1907]], which imposed an arms embargo on Eritrea, travel bans on Eritrean leaders, and asset freezes on Eritrean officials. Eritrea strongly criticised the resolution. In January 2011, Eritrea reestablished their mission to the AU in Addis Ababa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201101210166.html |title=Eritrea: Nation Appoints AU Envoy in Ethiopia |date=20 January 2011 |access-date=9 May 2011 |archive-date=29 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629134439/http://allafrica.com/stories/201101210166.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the fall of 2011, AMISOM forces, along with Kenyan and Ethiopian forces, launched a set of offensive attacks on the [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|al-Shabaab]]. In these attacks, [[African Union Mission to Somalia (2007-present)|AMISOM]] forces were able to reclaim key cities including the Somali capital of [[Mogadishu]]. In September 2013, political scientist Ethan Bueno de Mesquita argued that with the help of [[African Union Mission to Somalia (2007-present)|AMISOM]] forces, they had made it "nearly impossible for [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|al-Shabaab]] to hold territory even in its former strongholds in southern Somalia". Although much progress has been made towards peace in the region, it should still be noted that African Union forces' still get attacked regularly. Despite [[African Union Mission to Somalia (2007-present)|AMISOM]] being effective, it is vastly underfunded and many forces lack the resources required. Funding for humanitarian relief and the formation of armies tends to be vastly undercut.<ref name=":3" />

=== Anjouan, Comoros ===
{{main|2008 invasion of Anjouan}}
A successful 2008 invasion of [[Anjouan]] by AU and [[Comoros]] forces to stop self-declared president [[Mohamed Bacar]], whose 2007 re-election was declared illegal.<ref name="web.archive.org">{{cite web |title=African Union forces seek rebel leader |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20080325-comoros-anjouan-battle-bacar-african-union-first-day%26navi%3DMONDE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415055355/http://www.france24.com/en/20080325-comoros-anjouan-battle-bacar-african-union-first-day%26navi%3DMONDE |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2008 |website=France 24 |access-date=4 September 2018}}</ref> Prior to the invasion, France helped transport Tanzanian troops but their position in the disagreement was questioned when a French police helicopter was suspected of attempting to sneak Bacar into French exile.<ref>{{cite news |title=Comoros anger over chopper crash |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7306986.stm |website=BBC News |date=20 March 2008 |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-date=23 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080323180728/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7306986.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The first wave of troops landed on Anjouan Bay on 25 March and soon took over the airfield in [[Ouani]], ultimately aiming to locate and remove Bacar from office.<ref name="web.archive.org"/> On the same day, the airport, capital, and second city were overrun and the presidential palace was deserted.<ref>{{cite news |title=Battles on Comoros rebel island |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7312031.stm |website=BBC News |date=25 March 2008 |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-date=31 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080331010358/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7312031.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Bacar escaped and sought asylum in France.  The Comoros government demanded his return, in order to determine his fate.<ref>{{cite news |title=Comoran rebel seeks French asylum |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7315744.stm |website=BBC News |date=27 March 2008 |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-date=28 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328232824/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7315744.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Many of Bacar's main supporters were arrested by the end of March, including [[Caabi El-Yachroutu Mohamed]] and [[Ibrahim Halidi]].  Bacar's asylum request was rejected on 15 May, as France agreed to cooperate with the Comoran government's demand.<ref>{{cite news |title=Comoran rebel asylum plea refused |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7402921.stm |website=BBC News |date=15 May 2008 |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828170501/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7402921.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>  At the 29 June elections, [[Moussa Toybou]] won the presidency.<ref>{{cite web |title=Toybou confirmed Anjouan president |url=http://www.afrol.com/articles/29696 |website=Afrol News |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-date=4 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904120957/http://www.afrol.com/articles/29696 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Chagos Islands dispute ===
{{main|Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute}}
The sovereignty of the [[Chagos Archipelago]] in the Indian Ocean is disputed between the United Kingdom and [[Mauritius]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Chagos Islands dispute: UK 'threatened' Mauritius |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45300739 |work=BBC News |date=27 August 2018 |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=23 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323145031/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45300739 |url-status=live }}</ref> In February 2019, the [[International Court of Justice]] in [[The Hague]] issued [[Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965|an advisory opinion stating]] that the UK must transfer the Chagos Archipelago to Mauritius.<ref>{{cite news |title=Foreign Office quietly rejects International Court ruling to hand back Chagos Islands |url=https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/foreign-office-quietly-rejects-international-court-ruling-to-hand-back-chagos-islands-450078 |work=[[i (newspaper)|inews.co.uk]] |date=18 June 2020 |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=30 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130042318/https://inews.co.uk/news/politics/foreign-office-quietly-rejects-international-court-ruling-to-hand-back-chagos-islands-450078 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 22 May 2019, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] debated and adopted a resolution that affirmed that the Chagos archipelago "forms an integral part of the territory of Mauritius."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sands |first=Philippe |date=2019-05-24 |quote=Britain's behaviour towards its former colony has been shameful. The UN resolution changes everything |title=At last, the Chagossians have a real chance of going back home |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/may/24/chagossians-britain-colony-shameful-un-resolution? |journal=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=5 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205232500/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/may/24/chagossians-britain-colony-shameful-un-resolution |url-status=live }}</ref> The African Union urged the United Kingdom to comply with a UN resolution calling for it to withdraw from the Chagos Islands.<ref>{{cite news |title=African Union orders Britain to withdraw from Chagos Islands, end 'colonial administration' |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/african-union-orders-britain-to-withdraw-from-chagos-islands-end-colonial-administration-2019-11 |work=Business Insider |date=22 November 2019 |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414032714/https://www.businessinsider.com/african-union-orders-britain-to-withdraw-from-chagos-islands-end-colonial-administration-2019-11 |url-status=live }}</ref> The UK does not recognise Mauritius' sovereignty claim over the Chagos Archipelago.<ref>{{cite news |title=Chagos Islands dispute: UK misses deadline to return control |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-50511847 |publisher=BBC News |date=22 November 2019 |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226055339/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-50511847 |url-status=live }}</ref>