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Do not fill this in! ==Varieties== [[file:Chart of Daoist Talismans, 1553, woodblock print, Honolulu Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|Chart of [[Fulu|Taoist Talismans]], [[Japan]], [[Muromachi period|Muromachi perio]]d, 1553, anonymous woodblock print, James Michener Collection, [[Honolulu Museum of Art]]]] Today, there are various living Taoist traditions, the largest and most influential are the [[Quanzhen School]], particularly the [[Dragon Gate Taoism|Dragon Gate]] sect, and [[Zhengyi Dao]].{{sfnp|Chan|2005|p=93}} Quanzhen lineages are mainly monastic and ascetic tradition, based on meditation and internal cultivation, while the Orthodox Unity tradition is based on a lay priests (daoshi) who are expected to master an extensive ritual repertoire.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=149}} These two traditions developed during the Song dynasty and grew to become recognized by the imperial government during late imperial China.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=149}} "Some sects are concerned with the ritual control of spirits and the cosmic currents of yin and yang; others specialize in inner disciplines of meditation or breath control and mind-body exercise regimes."<ref name="Bowker-2021">{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |title=World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |publisher=[[DK (publisher)|DK]] |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-7440-3475-2 |location=New York |page=169 |author-link=John Bowker (theologian)}}</ref> There are also various smaller Taoist groups and traditions of practice.<ref name=":1" /> Eva Wong divides the major "systems" of Taoism into the following categories: Magical Taoism, Divinational Taoism, Ceremonial Taoism, Internal-Alchemical Taoism and Action and Karma Taoism.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=99-198}} === Magical Taoism === [[Magic (supernatural)|Magical]] Taoism is one of the oldest systems of Taoism and its practices are similar to the shamans and sorcerers of ancient China.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=99}} Magical Taoism believes there are various natural powers, deities and spirits (benevolent and malevolent) in the universe that can be made use of by specialists who know the right methods.<ref name="EB-2023" /><ref name="Lagerwey-2018" /> Their magic can include [[rainmaking]], protection, [[exorcism]], healing, traveling to the underworld to help the dead and [[mediumship]].{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=99}} Protection magic can include the use of [[amulet]]s and [[fulu]], as well as specific rites.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=103}} Protection rites often include ritual petitions to the celestial deities of the northern bushel.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=105-106}} [[Divination]] is also a widespread practice. A commonly used method of divination in magical Taoism is [[Fuji (planchette writing)|sandwriting]] ([[planchette]] writing).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=107}} According to Eva Wong, the main sects of magical Taoism today are the Maoshan sect (a very secretive sect, not to be confused with [[Shangqing School|Shangqing]]), the [[Way of the Celestial Masters|Celestial Masters]] and the Kun-Lun sect (which is strongly influenced by Tibetan magic and make use of Taoist and [[Buddhist deities]]).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=115-117}} === Divinational Taoism === [[file:Threevarious-Luopans-singapore-march28-2017.jpg|thumb|Three [[luopan]]s (geomantic compasses) used in [[feng shui]].]] Divinational Taoism focuses on various [[divination]] techniques to help one predict the future and live accordingly. This practice can also carry deeper spiritual significance, since it can help one appreciate the flux of the Tao.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=119}} This form of Taoism owes much to the ancient [[Fangshi|fang-shih]], the [[Yin and yang]] school of thought and often relies on the classic Chinese divination text, the [[I Ching|Yijing]].{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=115-121}} This tradition also relies on the cosmology of [[Wuji (philosophy)|Wuji]] and [[Taijitu|Taiji]], along with the teachings of yin and yang, the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|five elements]] and the [[Chinese calendar]].{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=124-131}} There many forms of Daoist divination, they include: celestial divination (which include various systems of [[Chinese astrology]], like Tzu-wei tu-su), terrestrial divination ([[feng shui]]), the casting of incense sticks with [[Hexagram (I Ching)|hexagrams]] on them and the interpretation of [[omen]]s.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=133-142}} Contemporary divinational Taoism is practiced in temples and monasteries by various individuals and may not be sect specific (it is even practiced by non-daoists).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=123}} This Taoist practice can be found in the Mao-shan sorcerers, the Celestial Masters sect and the [[Dragon Gate Taoism]] and [[Wudang Mountains]] sects.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=123}} There are also many lay practitioners that are not affiliated with any specific sect. These lay Taoist practitioners are called "kui-shih".{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=124}} === Ceremonial Taoism === [[file:小門震義宮 (20)正殿.jpg|thumb|Interior of the Xiaomen Zhengyi Temple]] Ceremonial Taoism focuses on [[ritual]] and devotion towards various celestial deities and spirits. The basic belief of ceremonial Taoism is that through various rites, human beings can honor the deities and these deities may then grant them with power, protection and blessings.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=145}} Rituals and festivals can include chanting, offerings, and the reading of scripture.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=145}} These rites are mostly performed by ritual masters who have trained extensively for this role and who may, through their mastery of ritual, intercede on behalf of laypersons.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=146}} There are various kinds of festivals in Ceremonial Taoism, including "Great Services" (chai-chiao) and Ritual Gatherings (fa-hui) that can last for days and can focus on repentance, rainmaking, disaster aversion or petitioning.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=163}} There are feast days which honor specific deities. 164 Funerals and birthday blessings are a common service.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=164}} There is a complex and large pantheon in Taoism. It includes various deities classified into various ranks within an administrative structure, at the top of which are the celestial lords (t'ien-tsun). These include judges, heralds, officers, generals, clerks and messengers.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=146, 159}} The main division is between "earlier heaven" deities, who have existed since the beginning of time and "later heaven" deities, mortals who later became immortal.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=147-154}} 146 Key earlier heaven deities include the [[Three Pure Ones]], the [[Jade Emperor]], the [[Queen Mother of the West]], the [[Doumu|Mother of the Bushel of Stars]], the Seven Star Lords of the Northern Bushel and the [[Three Great Emperor-Officials|Three Officials]] (Celestial, Earth, and Water).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=147-154}} Some key later heaven deities include: Immortal [[Lü Dongbin|Lu Tung-pin]], and [[Guan Yu|Emperor Kuan (Kuan-yu)]].{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=155-157}} Taoists may also honor local spirits and deities, as well Buddhist deities (like [[Guanyin]], [[Amitābha|Amitabha]], etc.).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=159}} The largest and most prominent sect of Ceremonial Taoism is the Way of the Celestial Masters, also known as [[Zhengyi Dao]].{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=164}} The patriarch of this sect resides in Taiwan and this tradition performs numerous ceremonies which are often sponsored by the Taiwanese government.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=164}} The training for Zhengyi priesthood, who are not celibate, focuses mainly on learning extensive rituals and liturgy, so that they can perform them flawlessly.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=169}} Ceremonies are practiced, to a lesser extent, in the Longmen (Dragon Gate) sect of the [[Quanzhen School]] and in the [[Xiantiandao]] sect, though these schools understand ritual as mainly a way to develop internal alchemy.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=169}} During the Song dynasty, a popular form of ceremonial Taoism was the Thunder Rites (leifa), which focused on exorcism and protection.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=153}} === Internal alchemy === [[File:Changchun-Temple-Master-and-disciples-painting-0316.jpg|thumb|[[Wang Chongyang]], the founder of the Quanzhen School, and his seven disciples, depicted in [[Changchun Temple]], [[Wuhan]].]] Internal Alchemy Taoism or Transformation Taoism focuses on internal transformation through the use of various self-cultivation techniques like [[qigong]], [[neidan]] (internal alchemy), [[Yangsheng (Daoism)|Yangsheng]] and so forth.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=172-173}} The basic worldview of this Taoist tradition is that all beings are born with certain forms of energy (mainly the [[Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)|three treasures]] of jing, qi and shen), which become dissipated, weak and lost as we age.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=173}} To prevent this and to increase our inner vital energies, one must practice various methods of "internal alchemy" (neidan) to harmonize the internal energy in one's body and refine the "golden elixir" (jindan) inside the body. These meditative inner alchemical practices are believed to lead to greater longevity and even immortality (union with the Tao at death).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=173-174}} Another worldview is that beings must "harmonize ''yin'' and ''yang'' forces internally to achieve immortality."<ref name="Bowker-2021" /> {{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=183}} A term used by some Taoists that sums up traditions that do not use these practices is "singular path".{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=183}} Most traditions follow the "singular path". These include the Longmen ([[Dragon Gate Taoism|Dragon Gate]]) sect of the [[Quanzhen School]], the [[Xiantiandao]] (Earlier Heaven Way) sect, the [[Wuliupai]] sect, and the [[Wudang quan]] sect.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=184}} The [[Quanzhen School]] was founded by [[Wang Chongyang]] (1112–1170), a hermit in the [[Zhongnan Mountains|Zhongnan mountains]] who was said in legends to have met and learned secret methods from two immortals: [[Lü Dongbin|Lu Dongbin]] and [[Zhongli Quan]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=154}} He then moved to [[Shandong]] and preached his teachings, founding various religious communities.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=154}} His school popularized Internal Alchemy Taoism and the usage of the term.<ref name="Wang-2022" /> One of his "seven perfected" disciples, [[Qiu Chuji]] (1148–1227), founded the [[Dragon Gate Taoism|Dragon Gate]] lineage. Chuji was also made the leader of all religions in China by [[Genghis Khan]], making his tradition the most powerful in all of China, and contributing to Longmen's lasting influence.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=155}} Another important Quanzhen lineage is the Qingjing pai, founded by the nun [[Sun Bu'er]] (1119–1182), the only female member of the "seven perfected".{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=155}} Today, Quanzhen is mainly made up of celibate monastics who practice [[vegetarianism]], [[sobriety]], internal alchemy and recite daily liturgies. The largest lineage is [[Dragon Gate Taoism]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=30}} Much like Taoists who see writings made by influential members of their faith as having a divine nature, some Taoists view self-cultivation as a way for emotions and self to partake in divinity,<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> and a smaller subset of these{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}} view some [[Legendary creature|mythological]] [[Hero|beings]] such as [[Xian (Taoism)|''xian'']] as being divine.<ref name="EB-2023">{{Cite web |title=xian |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/xian-Daoism |access-date=2023-02-21 |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221214931/https://www.britannica.com/topic/xian-Daoism |url-status=live }}</ref> Xian were viewed in many lights and as completely different types of beings over different times and in different places. They were sometimes viewed as [[Deity|deities]], parts of the celestial hierarchy, metaphorical ideals that people should strive to be like, reclusive Taoist masters who know how to control and harness spiritual energies, and/or shamans.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} ==== Hygiene Taoism ==== Hygiene Taoism is a Taoist tradition meant to increase life and "physical and mental harmony".<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> Some Taoists from the "Hygiene School" believed that they could survive only on their own breath and saliva to purify their bodies.<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> Much of Taoism in general is about cleanliness in some way and involves free thinking,<ref>{{Cite book |date=June 19, 2022 |title=Daoism and medicine 1 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9780203740262-32/daoism-medicine-1-michael-stanley-baker?context=ubx&refId=d89dd299-3707-4770-87ad-e12cc7ddbdb9 |publisher=[[Routledge]]|doi=10.4324/9780203740262-32 |last1=Stanley-Baker |first1=Michael |pages=401–416 |isbn=978-0-203-74026-2 }}</ref> as well as rejecting the gratification of the senses, in order to purify oneself to make the mind like "the sky", "sun", and nature in general.<ref name=":1" /> === Karmic Taoism === Karmic Taoism, or "Action and Karma Taoism", according to Wong, focuses on ethics and is grounded in the idea that the sacred celestial powers aid and reward those who do good and punish those who do evil.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=190}} This tradition can be traced back to Song dynasty Taoist Li Ying-chang and his Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao (T'ai-shang kan-ying p'ien).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=190}} Li sparked a popular movement which focused on the everyday life of ordinary persons instead of on temples, monasteries and sages.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=190}} At the core of this tradition is living in harmony with the Tao and with the Way of Heaven, which means acting with benevolence, kindness and compassion.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=191}} Doing evil is considered a transgression against the way and this evil will be punished by deities, celestial ministers and judges.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=191}} These ideas are quite ancient, the Taiping Jing (Scripture of Great Peace) states: "accumulate good deeds, and prosperity will come to you from the Tao".{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=191}} Besides wealth and prosperity, Karmic Taoism also believes that doing good increases longevity, while doing evil decreases it.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=192}} Another common idea in this group of Taoist traditions is that there deities, like the Kitchen Lord, who monitor our actions and report to Heaven and the Jade Emperor (who tallies them and metes out punishment and reward).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=193}} Karmic Taoism is a nonsectarian tradition adopted by many Taoist sects. The Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao is studied in Quanzhen Taoism, Hsien-t'ien Tao and in the Wu-Liu sect.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=194}} All major schools of Taoism view ethics as the foundation for spirituality.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=194}} Furthermore, there are those who are not affiliated with a Taoist sect who may still follow Karmic Taoism in daily life.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=194}} === Other divisions of Taoism === Taoism has traditionally been divided into religious Taoism and philosophical Taoism (Dàojiào and Dàojiā), respectively. ==== Religious Taoism ==== Some Taoist sects are expressly religious in the Western sense.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} "Lord Heaven" and "[[Jade Emperor]]" were terms for a Taoist supreme deity also used in [[Confucianism]] and [[Chinese folk religion]],<ref name="Gurdon-2002f">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=326, 393, 401 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> and some conceptions of this deity thought of the two names as synonymous. The Taoist Jade Emperor in the [[1st millennium|first millennium AD]] was a primary deity among polytheists who had a [[Tian|heaven]] that contained numerous ministries and officials and which was "modelled on...the earthly [[Emperor of China|emperor]]['s rule]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Storm |first=Rachel |title=Myths & Legends of India, Egypt, China & Japan |publisher=Lorenz Books |year=2011 |editor-last=Sudell |editor-first=Helen |edition=2nd |location=Wigston, Leicestershire |page=176}}</ref> [[Polytheist]] Taoists venerated one or more of these kinds of spiritual entities:<ref name="Cleary-1998">{{Cite book |last=Cleary |first=Thomas F. |title=The Essential Tao: An Initiation Into the Heart of Taoism Through the Authentic Tao Te Ching and the Inner Teachings of Chuang-Tzu |date=1998 |publisher=Castle Books |isbn=0-7858-0905-8 |location=Edison, New Jersey |page=166 |oclc=39243466 |author-link=Thomas Cleary}}</ref><ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> "deified heroes...forces of nature"<ref name="Gurdon-2002g">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=392 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> and "[[nature spirits]]",<ref name="Cleary-1998" /> ''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]'',<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> spirits,<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> [[Deity|gods]],<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> [[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]] and other celestial beings from [[Chinese Buddhism]], Indian Buddhism, and [[Chinese folk religion]],<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /><ref name="Bellingham-1992a">{{Cite book |last1=Bellingham |first1=David |title=Myths and Legends |last2=Whittaker |first2=Clio |last3=Grant |first3=John |publisher=Wellfleet Press |year=1992 |isbn=1-55521-812-1 |location=Secaucus, New Jersey |page=126 |oclc=27192394}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zürcher |first=Erik |date=1980 |title=Buddhist Influence on Early Taoism: A Survey of Scriptural Evidence |journal=T'oung Pao |volume=66 |issue=1/3 |pages=125–126 |doi=10.1163/156853280X00039 |jstor=4528195 |issn=0082-5433}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stevens |first=Keith |date=1998 |title=Images of Sinicised Vedic Deities on Chinese Altars |journal=[[Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch|Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |volume=38 |pages=62, 77–78, 85 |issn=0085-5774 |jstor=23889810}}</ref><ref name="Chua-2007" /> various kinds of beings occupying [[Tian|heaven]],<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> members of the [[Chinese theology|celestial bureaucracy]],<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> [[ghost]]s,<ref name="Wang-2022" /> "mythical emperors",<ref name="Szostak-2020">{{Cite book |last=Szostak |first=Rick |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-mono/10.4324/9781003013518/making-sense-world-history-rick-szostak |title=Making Sense of World History |date=2020-10-22 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-003-01351-8 |location=London |page=466 |doi=10.4324/9781003013518 |s2cid=224902752 |access-date=15 May 2023 |archive-date=15 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515125530/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-mono/10.4324/9781003013518/making-sense-world-history-rick-szostak |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Laozi]],<ref name="Szostak-2020" /> a trinity of high gods that varied in how it was thought of,<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> and the [[Three Pure Ones]].<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> Some Taoists chose not to worship beings they saw as gods,<ref name="Harari-2015" /> and only worshipped guardian spirits<ref name="Sanders-1980" /> or "celestials",<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> such as devas, various kinds of beings occupying heaven, members of the celestial bureaucracy, and ''xian''.<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> In some Taoist sects, the Tao was the primary thing that was venerated and beings that would be gods in other sects were merely treated as supernatural beings similar to gods who could only act in accordance with the Tao's wishes.<ref name="Szostak-2020" /> When the ''Tao Te Ching'' was written, many Taoists told stories and legends about heroes "whose bodies had been rendered invulnerable".<ref name="Mackenzie-1986" /> This could be achieved by making contact with "dragon's blood" or a river in the afterlife, or drinking the "waters of the 'Well of Life' and eating the 'fungus of immortality'".<ref name="Mackenzie-1986">{{Cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=Donald Alexander |title=China & Japan (Myths and Legends) |publisher=Avenel Books |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-517-60446-5 |location=New York |pages=317–318 |author-link=Donald Alexander Mackenzie}}</ref> Ordinary Chinese in the early [[Tang dynasty]] often worshipped local gods, Buddhist gods and devas, and Taoist gods simultaneously,<ref name="Chua-2007" /> and this population included a significant amount of the Taoists who have ever worshipped devas throughout history.{{Explain|reason=Better tensing and more explanation because I can't think of how to phrase this|date=May 2023}} The trinity is thought by scholars to have evolved into the Three Pure Ones.<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> It was thought of in the early [[Han dynasty]] as the three gods Tianyi, Diyi, and "the Taiyi".<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> These beings were varyingly interpreted as relatively simple heavenly, earthly, and all-purpose gods respectively,{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} the "supreme deity" (an intangible god that represented the mind of the Tao), "his disciple", the Lord Tao (a more physical god representing the Tao), and Lord Lao (Laozi "deified"),<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> or an emanation of the Tao that was ultimately singular in nature. An unrelated trinity was the [[Three Great Emperor-Officials]], three of the highest [[Shen (Chinese religion)|''shen'']] in some branches of religious Taoism thought to be able to pardon sins.<ref name="EB-2010">{{Cite web |date=2010-02-03 |title=Sanguan |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanguan |access-date=2023-04-30 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=6 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506181816/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanguan |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Tao]] was not worshipped alone,<ref name="NatGeo-2023" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-11-12 |title=Gods and spirits |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/beliefs/gods.shtml |access-date=2023-05-04 |website= |publisher=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB |archive-date=4 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504172443/https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/beliefs/gods.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> although gods do exist that anthropomorphize it in various ways. Laozi was sometimes thought to be a god or "the image of the Tao".<ref name="NatGeo-2023" /> "Some Taoist adepts" worshipped thousands of gods that were thought to exist in the body.<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page