Doctor of Philosophy Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! === Scandinavia === The doctorate was introduced in [[Sweden]] in 1477 and in [[Denmark-Norway]] in 1479 and awarded in theology, law, and medicine, while the [[Magister (degree)|magister's degree]] was the highest degree at the Faculty of Philosophy, equivalent to the doctorate. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a degree known as a doctorate of philosophy, based upon the German model. Denmark and Norway both introduced the Dr. Phil(os). degree in 1824, replacing the Magister's degree as the highest degree, while [[Uppsala University]] of Sweden renamed its Magister's degree ''Filosofie Doktor'' (fil. dr) in 1863. These degrees, however, became comparable to the German [[Habilitation]] rather than the doctorate, as Scandinavian countries did not have a separate Habilitation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dommasnes |first1=Liv Helga |title=Excavating women: a history of women in European archaeology |last2=Else Johansen Kleppe |last3=Gro Mandt |last4=Jenny-Rita Næss |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-15760-5 |editor-last=Margarita Díaz-Andreu García and Marie Louise Stig Sørensen |location=London |chapter=Women archeologists in retrospect, The Norwegian case |quote=... a Dr. philos. degree, which is the highest academic degree in Norway, roughly equivalent to the German Doktor Habilitation. Traditionally, this degree, which was considered a prerequisite for obtaining top positions within academia, was earned rather late in life, often after one had passed 50 years of age.}}</ref> The degrees were uncommon and not a prerequisite for employment as a professor; rather, they were seen as distinctions similar to the British (higher) doctorates ([[DLitt]], [[DSc]]). Denmark introduced an American-style PhD, the ph.d., in 1989; it formally replaced the [[Licentiate (degree)|Licentiate]]'s degree and is considered a lower degree than the dr. phil. degree; officially, the ph.d. is not considered a doctorate, but unofficially, it is referred to as "the smaller doctorate", as opposed to the dr. phil., "the grand doctorate." Holders of a ph.d. degree are not entitled to style themselves as "Dr."<ref name="cfa">{{Cite web |last=Vestergaard |first=Elisabeth |year=2006 |title=Den danske forskeruddannelse. Rapporter, evalueringer og anbefalinger 1992–2006 |url=http://www.cfa.au.dk/fileadmin/site_files/filer_forskningsanalyse/dokumenter/Notater/Notat_2006_3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719120623/http://www.cfa.au.dk/fileadmin/site_files/filer_forskningsanalyse/dokumenter/Notater/Notat_2006_3.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2011 |quote=Aarhus: Dansk Center for Forskningsanalyse}}</ref> Currently Denmark distinctions between the dr. phil. as the proper doctorate and a higher degree than the ph.d., whereas in Norway, the historically analogous dr. philos. degree is officially regarded as equivalent to the new ph.d. Today, the Norwegian PhD degree is awarded to candidates who have completed a supervised doctoral programme at an institution,<ref name="Lovdata AHO">{{Cite web |date=8 December 2011 |title=Forskrift for graden philosophiae doctor (ph.d.) ved Arkitektur- og designhøgskolen i Oslo (AHO) |url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2016-10-26-1442?q=ph.d. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507011733/https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2016-10-26-1442?q=ph.d. |archive-date=7 May 2019 |access-date=23 October 2018 |website=Lovdata}}</ref> while candidates with a master's degree who have conducted research on their own may submit their work for a Dr. Philos. defence at a relevant institution.<ref name="Lovdata UiO">{{Cite web |date=19 August 2011 |title=Forskrift for graden doctor philosophiae (dr.philos.) ved Universitetet i Oslo |url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2011-01-05-841?q=doctor%20philosophiae |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507011733/https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2011-01-05-841?q=doctor%20philosophiae |archive-date=7 May 2019 |access-date=23 October 2018 |website=Lovdata |language=no}}</ref> PhD candidates must complete one trial lecture before they can defend their thesis,<ref name="Lovdata AHO" /> whereas Dr. Philos. candidates must complete two trial lectures.<ref name="Lovdata UiO" /> In Sweden, the doctorate of philosophy was introduced at [[Uppsala University]]'s Faculty of Philosophy in 1863. In Sweden, the Latin term is officially translated into Swedish ''filosofie doktor'' and commonly abbreviated fil. dr or FD. The degree represents the traditional Faculty of Philosophy and encompasses subjects from biology, physics, and chemistry, to languages, history, and social sciences, being the highest degree in these disciplines. Sweden currently has two research-level degrees, the Licentiate's degree, which is comparable to the Danish degree formerly known as the Licentiate's degree and now as the ph.d., and the higher doctorate of philosophy, ''Filosofie Doktor''. Some universities in Sweden also use the term ''teknologie doktor'' for doctorates awarded by institutes of technology (for doctorates in engineering or natural science related subjects such as materials science, molecular biology, computer science etc.). The Swedish term fil. dr is often also used as a translation of corresponding degrees from e.g. Denmark and Norway. 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