Religion

== Related aspects ==

=== Law ===
{{Main|Law and religion}}
The study of law and religion is a relatively new field, with several thousand scholars involved in law schools, and academic departments including political science, religion, and history since 1980.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Witte |first1=John |year=2012 |title=The Study of Law and Religion in the United States: An Interim Report |journal=Ecclesiastical Law Journal |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=327–354 |doi=10.1017/s0956618x12000348|s2cid=145170469 }}</ref> Scholars in the field are not only focused on strictly legal issues about religious freedom or non-establishment, but also study religions as they are qualified through judicial discourses or legal understanding of religious phenomena. Exponents look at canon law, natural law, and state law, often in a comparative perspective.<ref>Norman Doe, ''Law and Religion in Europe: A Comparative Introduction'' (2011).</ref><ref>W. Cole Durham and Brett G. Scharffs, eds., ''Law and religion: national, international, and comparative perspectives'' (Aspen Pub, 2010).</ref> Specialists have explored themes in Western history regarding Christianity and justice and mercy, rule and equity, and discipline and love.<ref>John Witte Jr. and Frank S. Alexander, eds., ''Christianity and Law: An Introduction'' (Cambridge U.P. 2008)</ref> Common topics of interest include marriage and the family<ref>John Witte Jr., ''From Sacrament to Contract: Marriage, Religion, and Law in the Western Tradition'' (1997).</ref> and human rights.<ref>John Witte, Jr., ''The Reformation of Rights: Law, Religion and Human Rights in Early Modern Calvinism'' (2008).</ref> Outside of Christianity, scholars have looked at law and religion links in the Muslim Middle East<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elizabeth Mayer |first1=Ann |year=1987 |title=Law and Religion in the Muslim Middle East |journal=American Journal of Comparative Law |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=127–184 |jstor=840165 |doi=10.2307/840165}}</ref> and pagan Rome.<ref>Alan Watson, ''The state, law, and religion: pagan Rome'' (University of Georgia Press, 1992).</ref>

Studies have focused on [[secularization]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ferrari |first1=Silvio |year=2012 |title=Law and Religion in a Secular World: A European Perspective |journal=Ecclesiastical Law Journal |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=355–370 |doi=10.1017/s0956618x1200035x|s2cid=145347158 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Palomino |first1=Rafael |year=2012 |title=Legal dimensions of secularism: challenges and problems |url=https://eprints.ucm.es/12247/ |journal=Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice |volume=2 |pages=208–225 |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806153405/http://eprints.ucm.es/12247/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In particular, the issue of wearing religious symbols in public, such as headscarves that are banned in French schools, have received scholarly attention in the context of human rights and feminism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bennoune |first1=Karima |year=2006 |title=Secularism and human rights: A contextual analysis of headscarves, religious expression, and women's equality under international law |journal=Columbia Journal of Transnational Law |volume=45 |page=367 }}</ref>

=== Science ===
{{Main|Faith and rationality|Relationship between religion and science|Epistemology}}

[[Science]] acknowledges reason and [[empirical evidence]]; and religions include [[revelation]], [[faith]] and [[sacredness]] whilst also acknowledging philosophical and [[metaphysical]] explanations with regard to the study of the universe. Both science and religion are not monolithic, timeless, or static because both are complex social and cultural endeavors that have changed through time across languages and cultures.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stenmark |first1=Mikael |title=How to Relate Science and Religion: A Multidimensional Model |date=2004 |publisher=W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |isbn=978-0-8028-2823-1}}</ref>

The concepts of science and religion are a recent invention: the term religion emerged in the 17th century in the midst of colonization and globalization and the Protestant Reformation.<ref name=Nongbri /><ref name="Harrison Territories" /> The term science emerged in the 19th century out of [[natural philosophy]] in the midst of attempts to narrowly define those who studied nature ([[natural science]]),<ref name="Harrison Territories" /><ref name="Cahan Natural Philosophy">{{cite book|editor1-last=Cahan|editor1-first=David|title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science|date=2003|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-08928-7}}</ref><ref name="WSACM">{{cite book|editor1-last=Numbers|editor1-first=Ronald|editor2-last=Lindberg|editor2-first=David|title=When Science and Christianity Meet|date=2003|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-48214-9}}</ref> and the phrase religion and science emerged in the 19th century due to the reification of both concepts.<ref name="Harrison Territories" /> It was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged.<ref name="Harrison Territories" /> In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin roots of both science (''scientia'') and religion (''religio'') were understood as inner qualities of the individual or virtues, never as doctrines, practices, or actual sources of knowledge.<ref name="Harrison Territories" />

In general, the [[scientific method]] gains knowledge by testing hypotheses to develop [[theories]] through elucidation of facts or evaluation by [[experiment]]s and thus only answers [[physical cosmology|cosmological]] questions about the [[universe]] that can be observed and measured. It develops [[theory|theories]] of the world which best fit physically observed evidence. All scientific knowledge is subject to later refinement, or even rejection, in the face of additional evidence. Scientific theories that have an overwhelming preponderance of favorable evidence are often treated as ''[[de facto]]'' verities in general parlance, such as the theories of [[general relativity]] and [[natural selection]] to explain respectively the mechanisms of [[gravity]] and [[evolution]].

Religion does not have a method per se partly because religions emerge through time from diverse cultures and it is an attempt to find meaning in the world, and to explain humanity's place in it and relationship to it and to any posited entities. In terms of Christian theology and ultimate truths, people rely on reason, experience, scripture, and tradition to test and gauge what they experience and what they should believe. Furthermore, religious models, understanding, and metaphors are also revisable, as are scientific models.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tolman |first1=Cynthia |title=Methods in Religion |url=https://akbar.marlboro.edu/~mahoney/vhs/SciRelCourse/Religion_methods.html |website=Malboro College |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904013431/https://akbar.marlboro.edu/~mahoney/vhs/SciRelCourse/Religion_methods.html |archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref>

Regarding religion and science, [[Albert Einstein]] states (1940): "For science can only ascertain what is, but not what should be, and outside of its domain value judgments of all kinds remain necessary.<ref name="The New Republic">{{cite magazine |last1=Coyne |first1=Jerry A. |title=Einstein's Famous Quote About Science and Religion Didn't Mean What You Were Taught |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/115821/einsteins-famous-quote-science-religion-didnt-mean-taught |access-date=11 January 2021 |magazine=The New Republic |date=5 December 2013 |archive-date=29 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129011430/https://newrepublic.com/article/115821/einsteins-famous-quote-science-religion-didnt-mean-taught |url-status=live }}</ref> Religion, on the other hand, deals only with evaluations of human thought and action; it cannot justifiably speak of facts and relationships between facts<ref name="The New Republic" />…Now, even though the realms of religion and science in themselves are clearly marked off from each other, nevertheless there exist between the two strong reciprocal relationships and dependencies. Though religion may be that which determine the goals, it has, nevertheless, learned from science, in the broadest sense, what means will contribute to the attainment of the goals it has set up."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Personal God Concept Causes Science-Religion Conflict |journal=The Science News-Letter |date=21 September 1940 |first=Albert |last=Einstein |volume=38 |issue=12 |pages=181–182 |jstor=3916567 |doi=10.2307/3916567}}</ref>

=== Morality ===
{{Main|Morality and religion}}

Many religions have value frameworks regarding personal behavior meant to guide adherents in determining between right and wrong. These include the [[Jainism#Core beliefs|Triple Jems of Jainism]], [[Judaism|Judaism's]] [[Halacha]], [[Islam|Islam's]] [[Sharia]], [[Catholicism|Catholicism's]] [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Canon Law]], [[Buddhism|Buddhism's]] [[Noble Eightfold Path]], and [[Theological Aspects of the Avesta|Zoroastrianism's]] good thoughts, good words, and good deeds concept, among others.<ref>{{cite book|title=Good Without God: What a Billion Nonreligious People Do Believe|last=Esptein|first=Greg M.|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2010|isbn=978-0-06-167011-4|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/goodwithoutgodwh00epst/page/117 117]|url=https://archive.org/details/goodwithoutgodwh00epst/page/117}}</ref>

Religion and morality are not synonymous. While it is "an almost automatic assumption,"<ref name="The Elements of Moral Philosophy">{{cite book |title=The Elements of Moral Philosophy |editor-last2=Rachels |editor-first2=Stuart |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-07-803824-2 |edition=7 |location=New York |editor-last1=Rachels |editor-first1=James}}</ref> in Christianity, morality can have a [[Secular morality|secular basis]].

The study of religion and morality can be contentious due to ethnocentric views on morality, failure to distinguish between in group and out group altruism, and inconsistent definitions of religiosity.

=== Politics ===
==== Impact ====
{{Main|Religion in politics}}

Religion has had a significant impact on the political system in many countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Religion and Politics {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/rel-poli/ |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-date=18 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118103032/https://iep.utm.edu/rel-poli/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Notably, most Muslim-majority countries adopt various aspects of [[sharia]], the Islamic law.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sharia Law |url=https://www.mpvusa.org/sharia-law |website=Muslims for Progressive Values |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111200521/https://www.mpvusa.org/sharia-law |url-status=live }}</ref> Some countries even define themselves in religious terms, such as [[Iran|The Islamic Republic of Iran]]. The sharia thus affects up to 23% of the global population, or 1.57&nbsp;billion people who are [[Muslim world|Muslims]]. However, religion also affects political decisions in many western countries. For instance, in the [[United States]], 51% of voters would be less likely to vote for a presidential candidate who did not believe in God, and only 6% more likely.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2016/02/economist-explains-18?cid1=cust/noenew/n/n/n/20160229n/owned/n/n/nwl/n/n/NA/email The Economist explains: The role of religion in America's presidential race] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809213140/https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2016/02/economist-explains-18?cid1=cust%2Fnoenew%2Fn%2Fn%2Fn%2F20160229n%2Fowned%2Fn%2Fn%2Fnwl%2Fn%2Fn%2FNA%2Femail |date=9 August 2017 }}, ''The Economist'', 25 February 2016</ref> Christians make up 92% of members of the US Congress, compared with 71% of the general public (as of 2014). At the same time, while 23% of U.S. adults are religiously unaffiliated, only one member of Congress ([[Kyrsten Sinema]], D-Arizona), or 0.2% of that body, claims no religious affiliation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/08/27/10-facts-about-religion-in-america/|title=10 facts about religion in America|last=Lipka|first=Michael|date=27 August 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=9 July 2016|archive-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125032511/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/08/27/10-facts-about-religion-in-america/|url-status=live}}</ref> In most European countries, however, religion has a much smaller influence on politics<ref>[https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/04/europe-religion-and-politics Europe, religion and politics:Old world wars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809212902/https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/04/europe-religion-and-politics |date=9 August 2017 }}, The Economist, 22 April 2014</ref> although it used to be much more important. For instance, [[same-sex marriage]] and [[abortion]] were illegal in many European countries until recently, following Christian (usually [[Catholicism|Catholic]]) doctrine. Several [[List of atheists in politics and law|European leaders are atheists]] (e.g., [[France]]'s former president [[François Hollande|Francois Hollande]] or Greece's prime minister [[Alexis Tsipras]]). In Asia, the role of religion differs widely between countries. For instance, [[India]] is still one of the most religious countries and religion still has a strong impact on politics, given that Hindu nationalists have been targeting minorities like the Muslims and the Christians, who historically{{when|date=August 2021}} belonged to the lower castes.<ref>Lobo, L. 2000 [https://americamagazine.org/issue/276/article/religion-and-politics-india Religion and Politics in India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210120920/http://www.americamagazine.org/issue/276/article/religion-and-politics-india |date=10 December 2016 }}, ''America Magazine'', 19 February 2000</ref> By contrast, countries such as [[Religion in China|China]] or [[Religion in Japan|Japan]] are largely secular and thus religion has a much smaller impact on politics.

==== Secularism ====
{{Main|Secularism| Secularization}}
[[File:Ranjitsingh.gif|thumb|upright|[[Ranjit Singh]] established [[Ranjit Singh#Secular Sikh rule|secular rule]] over [[Punjab region|Punjab]] in the early 19th century.]]

Secularization is the transformation of the politics of a society from close identification with a particular religion's values and institutions toward nonreligious values and [[secular]] institutions. The purpose of this is frequently modernization or protection of the population's religious diversity.

=== Economics ===
{{Main|Economics of religion}}
{{Further|Religion and business|Wealth and religion}}
[[File:Religion economy.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Average income correlates negatively with (self-defined) religiosity.<ref name="gia" />]]

One study has found there is a negative correlation between self-defined religiosity and the wealth of nations.<ref name=WIN-Gallup>{{cite web |last=WIN-Gallup |title=Global Index of religion and atheism. |url=https://www.wingia.com/web/files/news/14/file/14.pdf |access-date=12 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021065544/https://www.wingia.com/web/files/news/14/file/14.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013}}</ref> In other words, the richer a nation is, the less likely its inhabitants to call themselves religious, whatever this word means to them (Many people identify themselves as part of a religion (not irreligion) but do not self-identify as religious).<ref name="WIN-Gallup" />

Sociologist and political economist [[Max Weber]] has argued that Protestant Christian countries are wealthier because of their [[Protestant work ethic]].<ref>Max Weber, [1904] 1920. ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''</ref> According to a study from 2015, [[Christians]] hold the largest amount of wealth (55% of the total world wealth), followed by [[Muslims]] (5.8%), [[Hindus]] (3.3%) and [[Jews]] (1.1%). According to the same study it was found that adherents under the classification [[Irreligion]] or other religions hold about 34.8% of the total global wealth (while making up only about 20% of the world population, see section on classification).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/453467/christians-hold-largest-percentage-global.html6|title=Christians hold largest percentage of global wealth: Report|publisher=deccanherald.com|date=14 January 2015|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=14 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614021411/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/453467/christians-hold-largest-percentage-global.html6|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Religion and health}}

[[Mayo Clinic]] researchers examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality, and physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life, and other health outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mueller |first1=Paul S. |last2=Plevak |first2=David J. |last3=Rummans |first3=Teresa A. |title=Religious Involvement, Spirituality, and Medicine: Implications for Clinical Practice |url=https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)62799-7/fulltext |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |access-date=11 January 2021 |pages=1225–1235 |language=English |doi=10.4065/76.12.1225 |date=1 December 2001 |volume=76 |issue=12 |pmid=11761504 |doi-access=free |archive-date=9 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809205018/https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196%2811%2962799-7/fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref> The authors reported that: "Most studies have shown that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes, including greater longevity, coping skills, and health-related quality of life (even during terminal illness) and less anxiety, depression, and suicide."<ref name="Religion and Medicine">{{cite journal |first1=Paul S. |last1=Mueller |first2=David J. |last2=Plevak |first3=Teresa A. |last3=Rummans |title=Religious Involvement, Spirituality, and Medicine: Implications for Clinical Practice |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |volume=76 |issue=12 |pages=1225–1235 |url=https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)62799-7/pdf |quote=We reviewed published studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and subject reviews that examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality and physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life, and other health outcomes. We also reviewed articles that provided suggestions on how clinicians might assess and support the spiritual needs of patients. Most studies have shown that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes, including greater longevity, coping skills, and health-related quality of life (even during terminal illness) and less anxiety, depression, and suicide |access-date=13 November 2010 |doi=10.4065/76.12.1225 |pmid=11761504 |year=2001 |doi-access=free |archive-date=8 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108220203/https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)62799-7/pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The authors of a subsequent study concluded that the influence of religion on health is largely beneficial, based on a review of related literature.<ref>{{cite journal |last2=Hill |first2=Peter C. |title=The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Mental and Physical Health |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |date=February 2001 |first1=Kevin S. |last1=Seybold |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=21–24 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00106|s2cid=144109851 }}</ref> According to academic James W. Jones, several studies have discovered "positive correlations between religious belief and practice and mental and physical health and longevity."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Religion, Health, and the Psychology of Religion: How the Research on Religion and Health Helps Us Understand Religion |journal=Journal of Religion and Health |year=2004 |first=James W. |last=Jones |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=317–328 |doi=10.1007/s10943-004-4299-3 |s2cid=33669708 |url=https://dergipark.gov.tr/bilimname/issue/3501/47580 |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302181542/http://dergipark.gov.tr/bilimname/issue/3501/47580 |url-status=live }}</ref>

An analysis of data from the 1998 US General Social Survey, whilst broadly confirming that religious activity was associated with better health and well-being, also suggested that the role of different dimensions of spirituality/religiosity in health is rather more complicated. The results suggested "that it may not be appropriate to generalize findings about the relationship between spirituality/religiosity and health from one form of spirituality/religiosity to another, across denominations, or to assume effects are uniform for men and women.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.11.008|pmid=16359765|title=Gender differences in religious practices, spiritual experiences and health: Results from the US General Social Survey|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=62|issue=11|pages=2848–2860|year=2006|last1=Maselko|first1=Joanna|author2-link=Laura Kubzansky|last2=Kubzansky|first2=Laura D.}}</ref>

=== Violence ===
{{Main|Religious violence}}
{{See also|Islam and violence|Christianity and violence|Judaism and violence}}

Critics such as [[Hector Avalos]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Fighting Words: The Origins of Religious Violence |first=Hector |last=Avalos |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=Amherst, New York |year=2005}}</ref> [[Regina Schwartz]],<ref name=ReginaSchwartz>{{cite book |title=The Curse of Cain: The Violent Legacy of Monotheism By Regina M. Schwartz |url=https://archive.org/details/curseofcainviole00schw |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1998}}</ref> [[Christopher Hitchens]],<ref name="Hitchens 2007">{{Cite book |last=Hitchens |first=Christopher |title=God is not Great |publisher=Twelve |year=2007}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} and [[Richard Dawkins]]<ref name="Dawkins 2006">{{Cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |title=The God Delusion |publisher=Bantam Books |year=2006}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} have argued that religions are inherently violent and harmful to society by using violence to promote their goals, in ways that are endorsed and exploited by their leaders.

Anthropologist Jack David Eller asserts that religion is not inherently violent, arguing "religion and violence are clearly compatible, but they are not identical." He asserts that "violence is neither essential to nor exclusive to religion" and that "virtually every form of religious violence has its nonreligious corollary."<ref name="CruelCreeds1">{{cite book |last=Eller |first=Jack David |title=Cruel Creeds, Virtuous Violence: Religious Violence Across Culture and History |year=2010 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-61614-218-6 |quote=As we have insisted previously, religion is not inherently and irredeemably violent; it certainly is not the essence and source of all violence.}}</ref><ref name="CruelCreeds2">{{cite book |last=Eller |first=Jack David |title=Cruel Creeds, Virtuous Violence: Religious Violence Across Culture and History |year=2010 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-61614-218-6 |quote=Religion and violence are clearly compatible, but they are not identical. Violence is one phenomenon in human (and natural existence), religion is another, and it is inevitable that the two would become intertwined. Religion is complex and modular, and violence is one of the modules—not universal, but recurring. As a conceptual and behavioral module, violence is by no means exclusive to religion. There are plenty of other groups, institutions, interests, and ideologies to promote violence. Violence is, therefore, neither essential to nor exclusive to religion. Nor is religious violence all alike... And virtually every form of religious violence has its nonreligious corollary.}}</ref>

==== Animal sacrifice ====
{{Main|Animal sacrifice|l1=Animal sacrifice}}

Some (but not all) religions practise [[animal sacrifice]], the [[ritual]] killing and offering of an animal to appease or maintain favour with a [[deity]]. It has been banned in [[India]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/02/india-court-bans-animal-sacrifice-hindu-temples |title=Indian court bans animal sacrifice |agency=Agence France-Presse |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2 September 2014 |access-date=17 December 2016 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827053603/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/02/india-court-bans-animal-sacrifice-hindu-temples |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Superstition ===
{{Further|Superstition|Magical thinking|Magic and religion}}

Greek and Roman pagans, who saw their relations with the gods in political and social terms, scorned the man who constantly trembled with fear at the thought of the gods (''deisidaimonia''), as a slave might fear a cruel and capricious master. The Romans called such fear of the gods ''superstitio''.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Veyne, Paul |title=A History of Private Life I: From Pagan Rome to Byzantium |date=1987 |page=211}}</ref> Ancient Greek historian [[Polybius]] described superstition in [[ancient Rome]] as an ''[[instrumentum regni]]'', an instrument of maintaining the cohesion of the [[Roman Empire|Empire]].<ref>Polybius, [[The Histories (Polybius)|The Histories]], VI 56.</ref>

Superstition has been described as the non-rational establishment of cause and effect.<ref>{{cite journal |name-list-style=amp |url=https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~kfoster/FosterKokko2008%20Proc%20B%20superstition.pdf |author=Kevin R. Foster |author2=Hanna Kokko |title=The evolution of superstitious and superstition-like behaviour |journal=Proc. R. Soc. B |volume=276 |date=2009 |issue=1654 |pages=31–37 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2008.0981 |pmid=18782752 |pmc=2615824 |orig-date=Published online 9 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100728042608/https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~kfoster/FosterKokko2008%20Proc%20B%20superstition.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2010 }}</ref> Religion is more complex and is often composed of social institutions and has a moral aspect. Some religions may include superstitions or make use of magical thinking. Adherents of one religion sometimes think of other religions as superstition.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Religion Explained |last=Boyer |first=Pascal |year=2001 |chapter=Why Belief |author-link=Pascal Boyer |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wreF80OHTicC&q=%22fang+too+were+quite+amazed%22&pg=PA297 |title-link=Religion Explained |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00696-0 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Nailed : ten Christian myths that show Jesus never existed at all |last=David |first=Fitzgerald |isbn=978-0-557-70991-5|oclc=701249439|date = 2010|publisher=Lulu.com }}</ref> Some [[atheists]], [[deists]], and [[skeptics]] regard religious belief as superstition.

The Roman Catholic Church considers superstition to be sinful in the sense that it denotes a lack of trust in the divine providence of God and, as such, is a violation of the first of the Ten Commandments. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] states that superstition "in some sense represents a perverse excess of religion" (para. #2110). "Superstition," it says, "is a deviation of religious feeling and of the practices this feeling imposes. It can even affect the worship we offer the true God, e.g., when one attributes an importance in some way magical to certain practices otherwise lawful or necessary. To attribute the efficacy of prayers or of sacramental signs to their mere external performance, apart from the interior dispositions that they demand is to fall into superstition. Cf. Matthew 23:16–22" (para. #2111)

=== Agnosticism and atheism ===
{{Main|Atheism|Agnosticism|Irreligion|Humanism}}
The terms [[atheist]] (lack of belief in gods) and agnostic (belief in the unknowability of the existence of gods), though specifically contrary to theistic (e.g., Christian, Jewish, and Muslim) religious teachings, do not by definition mean the opposite of religious. The true opposite of religious is the word irreligious. [[Irreligion]] describes an absence of any religion; [[antireligion]] describes an active opposition or aversion toward religions in general. There are religions (including Buddhism and Taoism) that classify some of their followers as agnostic, atheistic, or [[nontheism|nontheistic]]. For example, in ancient India, there were large atheistic movements and traditions ([[Hindu atheism|Nirīśvaravāda]]) that rejected the [[Vedas]], such as the atheistic [[Ājīvika]] and the [[Ajñana]] which taught agnosticism.

=== Interfaith cooperation ===
{{Main|Interfaith dialogue}}
Because religion continues to be recognized in Western thought as a universal impulse,<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Structure of Religion in the U.S. {{!}} Boundless Sociology|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-structure-of-religion-in-the-u-s/|access-date=8 August 2020|website=courses.lumenlearning.com|archive-date=13 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113024135/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-structure-of-religion-in-the-u-s/|url-status=live}}</ref> many religious practitioners{{who|date=July 2016}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Raja Juli |first1=Antoni |title=The Role of Religion in Peacebuilding in Conflict-Torn Society in Southeast Asia |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_345401/s4187186_phd_sumbmission.pdf?Expires=1610295553&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ&Signature=hUJPv-OD7l7Jpt4ccMX7BNlW4QFHnj8-GboiYteu5igkrj5sG4AkHix54sEaPg1oo8y7JSVMxwJL~A~09lqYk5VZSsCsLGG5IdiBquOyIyNX8LtILuovzgJe9Fta1uQWoTsrpQlxb~XgW5Zc2b1GdzBxHYGNj62-mNpflOVRltbgemo8IeIot75xdcQr03KIX8L57V4sspfryKXa7aWdbe6QR7NId7VVrhsD-CRp6JDo-s-jnxKYhionmqASyeryiUCYwCpBzyqaMXPQ~fLccofFFJFVkfPd2wazbxO4AIcEbW8MHb4oiOavkqwG9SUrbQ-D8mkIbJsQ6xEAdGRDJA__ |publisher=The University of Queensland, Australia |access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref> have aimed to band together in [[Interfaith dialogue|interfaith]] dialogue, cooperation, and [[Religion and peacebuilding|religious peacebuilding]]. The first major dialogue was the [[Parliament of the World's Religions]] at the 1893 [[World's Columbian Exposition|Chicago World's Fair]], which affirmed universal values and recognition of the diversity of practices among different cultures.<ref>{{cite web |title=1893 Chicago {{!}} parliamentofreligions.org |url=https://parliamentofreligions.org/parliament/1893-chicago |website=parliamentofreligions.org |access-date=10 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127075956/https://parliamentofreligions.org/parliament/1893-chicago |url-status=live }}</ref> The 20th century has been especially fruitful in use of interfaith dialogue as a means of solving ethnic, political, or even religious conflict, with [[Christian–Jewish reconciliation]] representing a complete reverse in the attitudes of many Christian communities towards Jews.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miles |first1=Leroyce |title=Introduction to the Study of Religion |date=2018 |publisher=EDTECH |isbn=978-1-83947-363-0 |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A-TEDwAAQBAJ&dq=The+20th+century+has+been+especially+fruitful+in+use+of+interfaith+dialogue+as+a+means+of+solving+ethnic,+political,+or+even+religious+conflict,+with+Christian%E2%80%93Jewish+reconciliation+representing+a+complete+reverse+in+the+attitudes+of+many+Christian+communities+towards+Jews&pg=PA6 |access-date=10 January 2021 |archive-date=16 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216060614/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Introduction_to_the_Study_of_Religion/A-TEDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=The+20th+century+has+been+especially+fruitful+in+use+of+interfaith+dialogue+as+a+means+of+solving+ethnic%2C+political%2C+or+even+religious+conflict%2C+with+Christian%E2%80%93Jewish+reconciliation+representing+a+complete+reverse+in+the+attitudes+of+many+Christian+communities+towards+Jews&pg=PA6&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>

Recent interfaith initiatives include A Common Word, launched in 2007 and focused on bringing Muslim and Christian leaders together,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://acommonword.com/|title=A Common Word Between Us and You|work=acommonword.com|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=10 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210054700/https://www.acommonword.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> the "C1 World Dialogue",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.c1worlddialogue.com/|title=konsoleH :: Login|work=c1worlddialogue.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128195027/https://www.c1worlddialogue.com/|archive-date=28 January 2011}}</ref> the Common Ground initiative between Islam and Buddhism,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://islambuddhism.com/|title=Islam and Buddhism|work=islambuddhism.com|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=20 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120075808/https://www.islambuddhism.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> and a [[United Nations]] sponsored "World Interfaith Harmony Week".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home|url=https://worldinterfaithharmonyweek.com/|access-date=8 August 2020|website=World Interfaith Harmony Week|language=en-US|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807190033/https://worldinterfaithharmonyweek.com/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldinterfaithharmonyweek.com/world-interfaith-harmony-week-resolution/|title=» World Interfaith Harmony Week UNGA Resolution A/65/PV.34|work=worldinterfaithharmonyweek.com|access-date=16 February 2022|archive-date=21 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921082633/http://worldinterfaithharmonyweek.com/world-interfaith-harmony-week-resolution/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Culture ===
Culture and religion have usually been seen as closely related.<ref name="14.1A: The Nature of Religion" /> [[Paul Tillich]] looked at religion as the soul of culture and culture as the form or framework of religion.<ref>Edward L. Queen, ''Encyclopedia of American Religious History, Volume 1'' Facts on File, 1996. p. vi.</ref> In his own words:
<blockquote>Religion as ultimate concern is the meaning-giving substance of culture, and culture is the totality of forms in which the basic concern of religion expresses itself. In abbreviation: religion is the substance of culture, culture is the form of religion. Such a consideration definitely prevents the establishment of a dualism of religion and culture. Every religious act, not only in organized religion, but also in the most intimate movement of the soul, is culturally formed.<ref>Paul Tillich, ''Theology of Culture'', Robert C. Kimball (ed), (Oxford University Press, 1959). p.42</ref></blockquote>
[[Ernst Troeltsch]], similarly, looked at culture as the soil of religion and thought that, therefore, transplanting a religion from its original culture to a foreign culture would actually kill it in the same manner that transplanting a plant from its natural soil to an alien soil would kill it.<ref>Eric J. Sharpe, "Religion and Cultures", An inaugural lecture delivered on 6 July 1977 by Eric J. Sharpe, Professor of Religious Studies in the University of Sydney. Accessed at [https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/index.php/ART/article/download/5496/6167 Openjournals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414095017/https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/index.php/ART/article/download/5496/6167 |date=14 April 2020 }} on 22 June 2018</ref> However, there have been many attempts in the modern pluralistic situation to distinguish culture from religion.<ref>See Taslima Nasreen, [https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/i-say-three-cheers-for-ayaan/232289 "I Say, Three Cheers For Ayaan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622192721/https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/i-say-three-cheers-for-ayaan/232289 |date=22 June 2018 }}, ''Outlook, The Magazine'' 28 August 2006. Also, Nemani Delaibatiki, [https://fijisun.com.fj/2017/07/08/religion-and-the-vanua/ "Religion and the Vanua"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506215535/https://fijisun.com.fj/2017/07/08/religion-and-the-vanua/ |date=6 May 2021 }} ''Fiji Sun'' 8 July 2017 in which the distinctive elements of culture against religion are taken from Domenic Marbaniang, [https://philpapers.org/bbs/thread.pl?tId=959 "Difference Between Culture and Religion: A Proposal Requesting Response"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622165520/https://philpapers.org/bbs/thread.pl?tId=959 |date=22 June 2018 }}, 12 October 2014.</ref> Domenic Marbaniang has argued that elements grounded on beliefs of a metaphysical nature (religious) are distinct from elements grounded on nature and the natural (cultural). For instance, language (with its grammar) is a cultural element while sacralization of language in which a particular religious scripture is written is more often a religious practice. The same applies to music and the arts.<ref>Domenic Marbaniang, "The Gospel and Culture: Areas of Conflict, Consent, and Conversion", ''Journal of Contemporary Christian'' Vol. 6, No. 1 (Bangalore: CFCC, Aug 2014), {{ISSN|2231-5233}} pp. 7–17</ref>