Russia

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Russia|Russians|List of cities and towns in Russia|List of cities and towns in Russia by population}}
{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| caption_align     = center
| align             = right
| title             = Ethnic groups across Russia
| image1            = Ethnic groups in Russia of more than 1 million people 2010 Census English.png
| caption1          = {{font|size=100%|text=Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over one million according to the 2010 census}}
| image2            = Percentage of Russians by Federal Subjects (2021 Census).png
| caption2          = {{font|size=100%|text=Percentage of ethnic Russians by region according to the 2021 census}}
}}

Russia is one of the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|most sparsely populated]] and [[Urbanization by country|urbanised]] countries,<ref name="cia"/> with the vast majority of its population concentrated within its [[European Russia|western part]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/29.htm |title=Russia – Demographics |year=1998 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]] |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref> It had a population of 142.8 million according to the [[Russian Census (2010)|2010 census]],<ref>{{ru-pop-ref|2010Census}}</ref> which rose to 144.7 million as of the [[Russian Census (2021)|2021 census]] (excluding Crimea and Sevastopol).<ref name="gks.ru-popul"/> Russia is the [[List of European countries by population|most populous country]] in Europe, and the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by population|ninth most populous country]], with a [[list of countries by population density|population density]] of {{convert|8|/km2|/mi2|disp=preunit|inhabitants&nbsp;|inhabitants|}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST |title=Population density (people per sq. km of land area) |work=[[The World Bank]] |access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref>

Since the 1990s, Russia's [[death rate]] has exceeded its [[birth rate]], which some analysts have called a [[Demographic crisis of Russia|demographic crisis]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Koehn |first=Jodi |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/russias-demographic-crisis |title=Russia's Demographic Crisis |work=[[Kennan Institute]] |publisher=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]] |access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> In 2022, the [[total fertility rate]] across Russia was estimated to be 1.42 children born per woman,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/SMD_7.1.xlsx|format=XLSX|script-title=ru:Суммарный коэффициент рождаемости|trans-title=Total fertility rate|language=ru|work=[[Russian Federal State Statistics Service]]|access-date=10 August 2023|archive-date=10 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810203543/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/SMD_7.1.xlsx|url-status=dead}}</ref> which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is one of the world's [[List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate|lowest fertility rates]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51120165 |title=Russia's Putin seeks to stimulate birth rate |publisher=BBC |date=15 January 2020 |access-date=5 January 2022}}</ref> Subsequently, the nation has one of the world's [[List of countries by median age|oldest populations]], with a median age of 40.3 years.<ref name="cia"/> In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining [[death rates]], increased [[birth rates]], and increased immigration.<ref>{{cite web |last=Foltynova |first=Kristyna |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/migrants-welcome-is-russia-trying-to-solve-its-demographic-crisis-by-attracting-foreigners-/30677952.html |title=Migrants Welcome: Is Russia Trying To Solve Its Demographic Crisis By Attracting Foreigners? |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |quote="Russia has been trying to boost fertility rates and reduce death rates for several years now. Special programs for families have been implemented, anti-tobacco campaigns have been organized, and raising the legal age to buy alcohol was considered. However, perhaps the most successful strategy so far has been attracting migrants, whose arrival helps Russia to compensate population losses." |date=19 June 2020 |access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref>

However, since 2020, Russia's population gains have been reversed, as excessive deaths from the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Russia|COVID-19 pandemic]] resulted in its largest peacetime decline in history.<ref>{{cite web |last=Saver |first=Pjotr |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/13/russias-population-undergoes-largest-ever-peacetime-decline |title=Russia's population undergoes largest ever peacetime decline, analysis shows |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=13 October 2021 |access-date=17 November 2021 |quote=Russia's natural population has undergone its largest peacetime decline in recorded history over the last 12 months...}}</ref> Following the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–present)|Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022]], the demographic crisis in the country has deepened,<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://jamestown.org/program/russias-demographic-collapse-is-accelerating/|title=Russia's Demographic Collapse Is Accelerating|last=Goble|first=Paul|volume=19|issue=127|date=18 August 2022|location=Washington, D.C.|journal=Eurasia Daily Monitor|publisher=[[Jamestown Foundation]]|access-date=6 October 2022}}</ref> as the country has reportedly suffered high military fatalities while facing renewed [[brain drain]] and [[human capital flight]] caused by Western mass-sanctions and boycotts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/8c576a9c-ba65-4fb1-967a-fc4fa5457c62 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/8c576a9c-ba65-4fb1-967a-fc4fa5457c62 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=Ukraine war threatens to deepen Russia's demographic crisis|date=4 April 2022|last1=Cocco|first1=Federica|last2=Ivanonva|first2=Polina|work=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=6 October 2022|location=London}}</ref>

Russia is a [[multinational state]] with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.<ref>{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/32.htm |title=Russia – Ethnic Composition |year=1998 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]] |access-date=27 January 2022}}</ref> There are over [[Ethnic groups in Russia|193 ethnic groups nationwide]]. In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic [[Russians]], and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_etn_10.php |title=EAll- Russian population census 2010 – Population by nationality, sex and subjects of the Russian Federation |work=Demoscope Weekly |year=2010 |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> while over four-fifths of Russia's population was of [[Ethnic groups of Europe|European descent]]—of whom the vast majority were [[Slavs]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38597 |title=Russia – The Indo-European Group |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |quote="East Slavs—mainly Russians but including some Ukrainians and Belarusians—constitute more than four-fifths of the total population and are prevalent throughout the country." |access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> with a substantial minority of [[Finno-Ugric peoples|Finno-Ugric]] and [[Germanic peoples]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kowalev |first1=Viktor |last2=Neznaika |first2=Pavel |title=Power and Ethnicity in the Finno-Ugric Republics of the Russian Federation: The Examples of Komi, Mordovia, and Udmurtia |jstor=41103741 |volume=30 |number=3 |pages=81–100 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2000 |journal=[[International Journal of Political Economy]]|doi=10.1080/08911916.2000.11644017 |s2cid=152467776 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bartlett |first=Roger |title=The Russian Germans and Their Neighbours |journal=[[The Slavonic and East European Review]] |volume=73 |number=3 |pages=499–504 |publisher=[[Modern Humanities Research Association]] |date=July 1995 |jstor=4211864}}</ref> According to the United Nations, Russia's [[Immigration to Russia|immigrant population]] is the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million;<ref>{{cite news |last=Kirk |first=Ashley |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/12111108/Mapped-Which-country-has-the-most-immigrants.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/12111108/Mapped-Which-country-has-the-most-immigrants.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Mapped: Which country has the most immigrants? |date=21 January 2016 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |access-date=30 June 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> most of which are from [[post-Soviet states]], mainly from [[Central Asia]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2017-03-14/russia-s-alternative-universe-immigrants-welcome |title=Russia Wants Immigrants the World Doesn't |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]] |first=Leonid |last=Ragozin |date=14 March 2017 |access-date=5 July 2023}}</ref>
{{Largest cities of Russia}}

=== Language ===
{{Main|Russian language|Languages of Russia}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
| align            = right
| title            = Minority languages across Russia
| image1           = Linguistic map of the Altaic, Turkic and Uralic languages (en).png|caption1=[[Altaic languages|Altaic]] and [[Uralic languages]] spoken across Russia
| image2           = Caucasus-ethnic en.svg|caption2=The [[North Caucasus]] is [[Peoples of the Caucasus|ethno]]-[[North Caucasian languages|linguistically]] diverse.<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Lazarev |first1=Vladimir |last2=Pravikova |first2=Ludmila |date=2005 |title=The North Caucasus Bilingualism and Language Identity |url=http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/103ISB4.PDF |editor-first1=James |editor-last1=Cohen |editor-first2=Kara T. |editor-last2=McAlister |editor-first3=Kellie |editor-last3=Rolstad |editor-first4=Jeff |editor-last4=MacSwan |page=1325 |book-title=ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism |publisher=Cascadilla Press |location=Somerville, MA |quote=The North Caucasus, inhabited by more than 100 of autochthonous and allochthonous peoples, including Russians, is a unique locus for conducting a large-scale research in the area of bilingualism and multilingualism.}}</ref>
}}
Russian is the [[official language|official]] and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.<ref name="Chevalier-2006"/> It is the most spoken [[first language|native language]] in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken [[Slavic languages|Slavic language]].<ref name="language"/> Russian is one of two official languages aboard the [[International Space Station]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Wakata |first=Koichi|author-link=Koichi Wakata |url=https://global.jaxa.jp/article/special/expedition/wakata01_e.html |title=My Long Mission in Space |publisher=[[JAXA]] |quote=The official languages on the ISS are English and Russian... |access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> as well as one of the six [[official languages of the United Nations]].<ref name="language">{{cite web |url=https://learn.utoronto.ca/programs-courses/languages-and-translation/language-learning/russian |title=Russian |publisher=[[University of Toronto]] |quote="Russian is the most widespread of the Slavic languages and the largest native language in Europe. Of great political importance, it is one of the official languages of the United Nations – making it a natural area of study for those interested in geopolitics." |access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref>

Russia is a [[Multilingualism#Europe|multilingual]] nation; approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2011 |last=Iryna |first=Ulasiuk |title=Legal protection of linguistic diversity in Russia: past and present |journal=[[Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development]] |publisher=[[European University Institute]] |volume=32 |number=1 |pages=71–83 |doi=10.1080/01434632.2010.536237 |s2cid=145612470 |issn=0143-4632 |quote=Russia is unique in its size and ethnic composition. There is a further linguistic complexity of more than 150 co-existing languages.}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38595 |title=Russia – Ethnic groups and languages |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |quote="Although ethnic Russians comprise more than four-fifths of the country's total population, Russia is a diverse, multiethnic society. More than 120 ethnic groups, many with their own national territories, speaking some 100 languages live within Russia's borders." |access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref> According to the [[Russian Census (2010)|Russian Census of 2010]], 137.5&nbsp;million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3&nbsp;million spoke [[Tatar language|Tatar]], and 1.1&nbsp;million spoke [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm |script-title=ru:Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года |trans-title=All-Russian population census 2010 |website=Том 4. Национальный состав и владение языками, гражданство |publisher=[[Rosstat]] |language=ru |access-date=24 August 2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307194352/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm |archive-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to [[List of official languages in Russia|establish their own state languages]] in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm |title=Chapter 3. The Federal Structure |publisher=[[Constitution of Russia]] |quote="2. The Republics shall have the right to establish their own state languages. In the bodies of state authority and local self-government, state institutions of the Republics they shall be used together with the state language of the Russian Federation. 3. The Russian Federation shall guarantee to all of its peoples the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development." |access-date=27 December 2007}}</ref> However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to [[List of endangered languages in Russia|many languages becoming endangered]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jankiewicz |first1=Szymon |last2=Knyaginina |first2=Nadezhda |last3=Prina |first3=Federic |url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/208165/1/208165.pdf |title=Linguistic rights and education in the republics of the Russian Federation: towards unity through uniformity |date=13 March 2020 |volume=45 |number=1 |pages=59–91 |journal=[[Review of Central and East European Law]] |doi=10.1163/15730352-bja10003 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |s2cid=216273023 |issn=0925-9880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bondarenko |first1=Dmitry V. |last2=Nasonkin |first2=Vladimir V. |last3=Shagieva |first3=Rozalina V. |last4=Kiyanova |first4=Olga N. |last5=Barabanova |first5=Svetlana V. |year=2018 |title=Linguistic Diversity In Russia Is A Threat To Sovereignty Or A Condition Of Cohesion? |url=https://mjltm.org/article-1-146-en.pdf |journal=Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods |pages=166–182 |volume=8 |number=5 |issn=2251-6204}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Russia}}
[[File:Moscow StBasilCathedral d18.jpg|thumb|[[Saint Basil's Cathedral]] in Moscow is the most iconic religious architecture of Russia.]]
Russia is a [[secular state]] by constitution, and its largest religion is [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]], chiefly represented by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]].<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012">{{cite web|title=Арена: Атлас религий и национальностей|trans-title=Arena: Atlas of Religions and Nationalities|year=2012|publisher=Среда (Sreda)|url=https://docviewer.yandex.com/view/0/?*=rvAv5PGTc%2Fw%2BBFV6QOUZtaf5gYF7InVybCI6InlhLWRpc2stcHVibGljOi8vMWV1aDl5RDFpcnZKeVZNNSswWWFaZktqRFhoOXZDNWhldUlGTU5uQU4zQT0iLCJ0aXRsZSI6IlNyZWRhX2Jsb2tfcHJlc3Nfc20yLnBkZiIsInVpZCI6IjAiLCJub2lmcmFtZSI6ZmFsc2UsInRzIjoxNTI0NDg3NTUzMTcwfQ%3D%3D&page=1|format=PDF}} See also the results' '''[http://sreda.org/arena main interactive mapping]''' and the static mappings: {{cite map|title=Religions in Russia by federal subject|journal=Ogonek|volume=34|issue=5243|date=27 August 2012|url=http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421154615/http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg|archive-date=21 April 2017}} The Sreda Arena Atlas was realised in cooperation with the [http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=census All-Russia Population Census 2010 (Всероссийской переписи населения 2010)], the [http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=minust Russian Ministry of Justice (Минюста РФ)], the Public Opinion Foundation (Фонда Общественного Мнения) and presented among others by the Analytical Department of the Synodal Information Department of the Russian Orthodox Church. See: {{cite journal|title=Проект АРЕНА: Атлас религий и национальностей|trans-title=Project ARENA: Atlas of religions and nationalities|url=http://russ.ru/Mirovaya-povestka/Proekt-ARENA-Atlas-religij-i-nacional-nostej|journal=Russian Journal|date=10 December 2012}}</ref> Orthodox Christianity, together with [[Islam]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Paganism]] (either preserved or [[modern Paganism|revived]]), are recognised by Russian law as the traditional religions of the country, part of its "historical heritage".<ref>{{cite book|last=Bourdeaux|first=Michael|chapter=Trends in Religious Policy|chapter-url={{GBurl|id=EPP3ti4hysUC|p=46}}|title=Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=2003|isbn=978-1857431377|pages=46–52 [47]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Fagan|first=Geraldine|title=Believing in Russia: Religious Policy After Communism|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9780415490023}} p. 127.</ref>

Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia, and is the traditional religion among the majority of the [[peoples of the Caucasus|peoples of the North Caucasus]], and among some [[Turkic peoples]] scattered along the [[Idel-Ural|Volga-Ural]] region.<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/> Large populations of Buddhists are found in [[Kalmykia]], [[Buryatia]], [[Zabaykalsky Krai]], and they are the vast majority of the population in [[Tuva]].<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/> Many Russians practise other religions, including [[Rodnovery]] (Slavic Neopaganism),<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beskov|first=Andrey|year=2020|title=Этнорелигиозное измерение современной русской идентичности: православие vs неоязычество|trans-title=Ethno-Religious Dimension of Modern Russian Identity: Orthodoxy vs Neo-Paganism|journal=Studia Culturae|publisher=ANO DPO|location=Saint Petersburg|volume=3|number=45|pages=106–122|issn=2310-1245|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349573805|language=ru}}</ref> [[Assianism]] (Scythian Neopaganism),<ref>{{cite journal|author-last=Foltz|author-first=Richard|author-link=Richard Foltz|title=Scythian Neo-Paganism in the Caucasus: The Ossetian Uatsdin as a 'Nature Religion'|journal=Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature, and Culture|volume=13|number=3|year=2019|pages=314–332|doi=10.1558/jsrnc.39114|s2cid=213692638|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338821308}}</ref> other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as [[Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Andreeva|first=Julia Olegovna|year=2012|chapter=Представления о народных традициях в движении 'Звенящие кедры России'|trans-chapter=Representations of national traditions in the movement 'Ringing Cedars of Russia'|title=Аспекты будущего по этнографическим и фольклорным материалам: сборник научных статей|trans-title=Prospects of the future in ethnographic and folklore materials: Collection of scientific articles|chapter-url=http://www.kunstkamera.ru/files/lib/978-5-88431-204-3/978-5-88431-204-3_14.pdf|editor=T. B. Shchepanskaya|publisher=[[Kunstkamera]]|location=Saint Petersburg|pages=231–245|language=ru|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806200229/https://www.kunstkamera.ru/files/lib/978-5-88431-204-3/978-5-88431-204-3_14.pdf|archive-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> various movements of [[Hinduism]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tkatcheva|first=Anna|title=Neo-Hindu Movements and Orthodox Christianity in Post-Communist Russia|journal=India International Centre Quarterly|volume=21|number=2/3|pages=151–162|date=1994|jstor=23003642}}</ref> [[Siberian shamanism]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kharitonova|first=Valentina|title=Revived Shamanism in the Social Life of Russia|journal=Folklore|volume=62|pages=37–54|date=2015|issn=1406-0949|doi=10.7592/FEJF2015.62.kharitonova|doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[Tengrism]], various [[Neo-Theosophy|Neo-Theosophical]] movements such as [[Roerichism]], and other faiths.<ref>{{cite book|year=2006|editor-surname1=Bourdeaux|editor-given1=Michael|editor-surname2=Filatov|editor-given2=Sergey|title=Современная религиозная жизнь России. Опыт систематического описания|trans-title=Contemporary religious life of Russia. Systematic description of experiences|place=Moscow|publisher=[[Keston Institute]]; Logos|volume=4|language=ru|isbn=5987040574}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Menzel|editor-first1=Brigit|editor-last2=Hagemeister|editor-first2=Michael|editor-last3=Glatzer Rosenthal|editor-first3=Bernice|title=The New Age of Russia: Occult and Esoteric Dimensions|publisher=Kubon & Sagner|year=2012|isbn=978-3866881976|url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903042320/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf|archive-date=3 September 2021}}</ref> Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country;<ref>{{cite web|last=Sibireva|first=Olga|url=https://www.sova-center.ru/en/religion/publications/2021/04/d44133/|title=Freedom of Conscience in Russia: Restrictions and Challenges in 2020|publisher=[[SOVA Center]]|date=29 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209154706/https://www.sova-center.ru/en/religion/publications/2021/04/d44133|archive-date=9 February 2022}}</ref> notably, in 2017 the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Knox|first=Zoe|year=2019|title=Jehovah's Witnesses as Extremists: The Russian State, Religious Pluralism, and Human Rights|journal=The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review|volume=46|number=2|pages=128–157|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|doi=10.1163/18763324-04602003|hdl=2381/43756|s2cid=164831768|issn=1876-3324|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10196396 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the [[Ministry of Justice (Russia)|Ministry of Justice]], published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% [[Old Believers]], [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] or [[Protestants]]—25% were [[spiritual but not religious|believers without affiliation to any specific religion]], 13% were [[atheism|atheists]], 6.5% were Muslims,{{efn|name=ArenaAtlasIslam|The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely [[Chechnya]] and [[Ingushetia]], which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/>}} 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" ([[Slavic Native Faith|Rodnovery]], other Paganisms, [[Shamanism in Siberia|Siberian shamanism]] and [[Tengrism]]), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were [[Judaism|religious Jews]] and 0.1% were Hindus.<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Russia}}
[[File:МГУ, вид с воздуха.jpg|thumb|[[Moscow State University]], the most prestigious educational institution in Russia<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/lomonosov-moscow-state-university |title=Lomonosov Moscow State University |work=[[QS World University Rankings]] |access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref>]]
Russia has an adult [[literate|literacy rate]] of 100%,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?locations=RU |title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) – Russian Federation |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=21 January 2022}}</ref> and has [[compulsory education]] for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.<ref name="Nuffic-2019"/> It grants [[free education]] to its citizens by constitution.<ref name="CEPES">{{cite book |date=1997 |last=Kouptsov |first=Oleg |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000129839 |title=Mutual recognition of qualifications: the Russian Federation and the other European countries |location=[[Bucharest]] |publisher=[[UNESCO-CEPES]] |page=25 |isbn=929-0-69146-8}}</ref> The [[Ministry of Education (Russia)|Ministry of Education of Russia]] is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education; while the [[Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Russia)|Ministry of Education and Science of Russia]] is responsible for science and higher education.<ref name="Nuffic-2019">{{cite web |url=https://www.nuffic.nl/sites/default/files/2020-08/education-system-russia.pdf |title=Education system Russia |publisher=[[Nuffic]] |version=3 |location=The Hague |date=October 2019 |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-date=26 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726203317/https://www.nuffic.nl/sites/default/files/2020-08/education-system-russia.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated countries, and has the [[List of countries by tertiary education attainment|sixth-highest proportion]] of [[tertiary education|tertiary-level graduates]] in terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/population-with-tertiary-education.htm |title=Population with tertiary education |website=[[OECD]] Data |doi=10.1787/0b8f90e9-en |year=2022 |access-date=21 January 2022}}</ref> It spent roughly 4.7% of its GDP on education in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=RU |title=Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) – Russian Federation |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=4 January 2022}}</ref>

Russia's [[pre-school]] education system is highly developed and optional,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Taratukhina |first1=Maria S. |last2=Polyakova |first2=Marina N. |last3=Berezina |first3=Tatyana A. |last4=Notkina |first4=Nina A. |last5=Sheraizina |first5=Roza M. |last6=Borovkov |first6=Mihail I. |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000149142_eng |title=Early childhood care and education in the Russian Federation |year=2006 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=4 January 2022}}</ref> some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.<ref name="Nuffic-2019"/> An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.<ref name="Educationb">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Housing#ref38625 |title=Russia – Education |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref>

Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:<ref name="CEPES"/> first-degree courses usually take five years.<ref name="Educationb"/> The oldest and largest [[List of institutions of higher education in Russia|universities]] in Russia are [[Moscow State University]] and [[Saint Petersburg State University]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ridder-Symoens |first=Hilde de |title=History of the University in Europe: Volume 2, Universities in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800) |url={{GBurl|id=ZHMjzvAxHF0C}} |date=1996 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |series=[[A History of the University in Europe]] |pages=80–89 |isbn=978-0-521-36106-4}}</ref> There are ten highly prestigious [[Template:Federal universities of Russia|federal universities]] across the country. Russia was the world's fifth-leading destination for [[international student]]s in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/uis-student-flow |title=Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=4 January 2022}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Healthcare in Russia}}
[[File:Metallurg Sochi.jpg|thumb|Metallurg, a Soviet-era [[sanatorium]] in [[Sochi]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Morton |first=Elise |url=https://www.calvertjournal.com/features/show/9981/beyond-the-game-sochi-seaside-walking-guide-soviet-sanatoriums-gardens |work=[[Calvert 22 Foundation]] |title=Russian rivieia: from Soviet sanatoriums to lush gardens, your walking guide to seaside Sochi |date=25 May 2018 |access-date=7 January 2022}}</ref>]]
Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, [[universal health care]] for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cook |first=Linda |url=https://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAuxPages)/3C45C5A972BF063BC1257DF1004C5420/$file/Cook.pdf |date=February 2015 |work=[[United Nations Research Institute for Social Development]] |publisher=United Nations |title=Constraints on Universal Health Care in the Russian Federation |location=Geneva |access-date=3 January 2022 }}</ref> The [[Ministry of Health (Russia)|Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation]] oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.expatica.com/ru/healthcare/healthcare-basics/healthcare-in-russia-104030/ |title=Healthcare in Russia: the Russian healthcare system explained |work=[[Expatica]] |date=8 January 2021 |access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref>

Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=RU |title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Russian Federation |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=21 April 2021|quote=Data retrieved on January 30, 2022.}}</ref> Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reshetnikov |first1=Vladimir |last2=Arsentyev |first2=Evgeny |last3=Bolevich |first3=Sergey |last4=Timofeyev |first4=Yuriy |last5=Jakovljević |first5=Mihajlo |date=24 May 2019 |journal=[[International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health]] |page=1848 |volume=16 |issue=10 |title=Analysis of the Financing of Russian Health Care over the Past 100 Years |doi=10.3390/ijerph16101848 |pmc=6571548 |pmid=31137705|doi-access=free }}</ref> Russia has one of the world's most female-biased [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]]s, with 0.859 males to every female,<ref name=cia/> due to its high male [[mortality rate]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Nuwer |first=Rachel |author-link=Rachel Nuwer |date=17 February 2014 |access-date=7 January 2022 |title=Why Russian Men Don't Live as Long |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/18/science/why-russian-men-dont-live-as-long.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> In 2021, the overall [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy in Russia]] at birth was 70.06 years (65.51 years for males and 74.51 years for females),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/folder/210/document/13207 |title=Демографический ежегодник России |publisher=[[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Federal State Statistics Service of Russia]] (Rosstat) |access-date=1 June 2022 |language=ru |trans-title=The Demographic Yearbook of Russia}}</ref> and it had a very low [[Infant mortality|infant mortality rate]] (5 per 1,000 [[live birth (human)|live birth]]s).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?Locations=RU&locations=RU |title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – Russian Federation |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref>

The principal cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lakunchykova |first1=Olena |last2=Averina |first2=Maria |last3=Wilsgaard |first3=Tom |last4=Watkins |first4=Hugh |last5=Malyutina |first5=Sofia |last6=Ragino |first6=Yulia |last7=Keogh |first7=Ruth H |last8=Kudryavtsev |first8=Alexander V |last9=Govorun |first9=Vadim|last10=Cook|first10=Sarah |last11=Schirmer |first11=Henrik |last12=Eggen |first12=Anne Elise |last13=Hopstock |first13=Laila Arnesdatter |last14=Leon |first14=David A |doi=10.1136/jech-2020-213885 |doi-access=free |title=Why does Russia have such high cardiovascular mortality rates? Comparisons of blood-based biomarkers with Norway implicate non-ischaemic cardiac damage |journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health |year=2020 |volume=74 |issue=9 |pages=698–704 |pmid=32414935 |pmc=7577103}}</ref> [[Obesity]] is a prevalent health issue in Russia; most adults are overweight or obese.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Russian Federation |url=https://data.worldobesity.org/country/russian-federation-179/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=World Obesity Federation Global Obesity Observatory |language=en}}</ref> However, Russia's historically high [[Alcohol consumption in Russia|alcohol consumption rate]] is the biggest health issue in the country,<ref>{{cite journal |last=McKee |first=Martin |title=Alcohol in Russia |date=1 November 1999 |pages=824–829 |volume=34 |issue=6 |journal=Alcohol and Alcoholism |doi=10.1093/alcalc/34.6.824 |pmid=10659717|doi-access=free}}</ref> as it remains [[List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita|one of the world's highest]], despite a stark decrease in the last decade.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Russia's alcohol policy: a continuing success story |journal=[[The Lancet]] |quote="Russians are officially drinking less and, as a consequence, are living longer than ever before...Russians are still far from being teetotal: a pure ethanol per capita consumption of 11·7 L, reported in 2016, means consumption is still one of the highest worldwide, and efforts to reduce it further are required." |date=5 October 2019 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32265-2 |last1=The Lancet |volume=394 |issue=10205 |page=1205 |pmid=31591968|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Tobacco consumption by country|Smoking]] is another health issue in the country.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shkolnikov |first1=Vladimir M. |display-authors=etal |title=Time trends in smoking in Russia in the light of recent tobacco control measures: synthesis of evidence from multiple sources |date=23 March 2020 |journal=BMC Public Health |doi=10.1186/s12889-020-08464-4 |doi-access=free |volume=20 |number=378 |page=378 |pmc=7092419 |pmid=32293365 }}</ref> The country's [[List of countries by suicide rate|high suicide rate]], although [[Suicide in Russia|on the decline]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.SUIC.P5?locations=RU |title=Suicide mortality rate (per 100,000 population) – Russian Federation |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=3 January 2022}}</ref> remains a significant social issue.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/mental-health/news/news/2020/9/preventing-suicide-russian-federation-adapts-who-self-harm-monitoring-tool |title=Preventing suicide: Russian Federation adapts WHO self-harm monitoring tool |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |date=9 October 2020 |access-date=3 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174930/https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/mental-health/news/news/2020/9/preventing-suicide-russian-federation-adapts-who-self-harm-monitoring-tool |url-status=dead }}</ref>