Judaism

==Community leadership==
===Classical priesthood===
[[File:Jewish Children with their Teacher in Samarkand.jpg|thumb|Jewish students with their teacher in [[Samarkand]], [[Uzbekistan]] {{Circa|1910}}.]]
The role of the priesthood in Judaism has significantly diminished since the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in 70 CE when priests attended to the Temple and sacrifices. The priesthood is an inherited position, and although priests no longer have any but ceremonial duties, they are still honored in many Jewish communities. Many Orthodox Jewish communities believe that they will be needed again for a future [[Third Temple]] and need to remain in readiness for future duty:
* [[Kohen]] (priest) – patrilineal descendant of [[Aaron]], brother of [[Moses]]. In the Temple, the ''kohanim'' were charged with performing the sacrifices. Today, a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah, performs the [[Priestly Blessing]], as well as complying with other unique laws and ceremonies, including the ceremony of redemption of the first-born.
* Levi ([[Levite]]) – Patrilineal descendant of [[Levi]] the son of [[Jacob]]. In the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], the levites sang [[Psalms]], performed construction, maintenance, janitorial, and guard duties, assisted the priests, and sometimes interpreted the law and Temple ritual to the public. Today, a Levite is called up second to the reading of the Torah.

===Prayer leaders===
[[File:Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg|thumb|[[Magen David Synagogue (Kolkata)|Magen David Synagogue]] in Kolkata, India]]
From the time of the [[Mishnah]] and Talmud to the present, Judaism has required specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies. A Jew can fulfill most requirements for prayer by himself. Some activities—reading the [[Torah]] and ''[[haftarah]]'' (a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings), the prayer for mourners, the blessings for bridegroom and bride, the complete grace after meals—require a ''[[minyan]]'', the presence of ten Jews.

The most common professional clergy in a [[synagogue]] are:
* [[Rabbi]] of a congregation – Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation. This role requires ordination by the congregation's preferred authority (i.e., from a respected Orthodox rabbi or, if the congregation is Conservative or Reform, from academic seminaries). A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi. Some congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as ''shatz'' or ''baal kriyah'' (see below).
** Hassidic ''[[Rebbe]]'' – rabbi who is the head of a [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] dynasty.
* [[Hazzan]] (note: the "h" denotes [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]]) (cantor) – a trained vocalist who acts as ''shatz''. Chosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan.

Jewish prayer services do involve two specified roles, which are sometimes, but not always, filled by a rabbi or hazzan in many congregations. In other congregations these roles are filled on an ad-hoc basis by members of the congregation who lead portions of services on a rotating basis:
* Shaliach tzibur or ''Shatz'' (leader—literally "agent" or "representative"—of the congregation) leads those assembled in prayer and sometimes prays on behalf of the community. When a ''shatz'' recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation, he is ''not'' acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator. The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying ''amen'' at their conclusion; it is with this act that the ''shatz's'' prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation. Any adult capable of reciting the prayers clearly may act as ''shatz''. In Orthodox congregations and some Conservative congregations, only men can be prayer leaders, but all [[Progressive Judaism|Progressive]] communities now allow women to serve in this function.
* The Baal kriyah or ''baal koreh'' (master of the reading) reads the weekly [[Torah]] portion. The requirements for being the ''baal kriyah'' are the same as those for the ''shatz''. These roles are not mutually exclusive. The same person is often qualified to fill more than one role and often does. Often there are several people capable of filling these roles and different services (or parts of services) will be led by each.

Many congregations, especially larger ones, also rely on a:
* [[Gabbai]] (sexton) – Calls people up to the Torah, appoints the ''shatz'' for each prayer session if there is no standard ''shatz'', and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied.

The three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honor. Since the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] large synagogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and hazzans to act as ''shatz'' and ''baal kriyah'', and this is still typically the case in many Conservative and Reform congregations. However, in most Orthodox synagogues these positions are filled by laypeople on a rotating or ad-hoc basis. Although most congregations hire one or more Rabbis, the use of a professional hazzan is generally declining in American congregations, and the use of professionals for other offices is rarer still.
[[File:Jewish_scribe_writing_the_Torah.jpg|thumb|A [[Yemenite Jews|Yemeni]] sofer writing a torah in the 1930s]]

===Specialized religious roles===
* ''[[Beth din#Officers of a beth din|Dayan]]'' (judge) – An ordained rabbi with special legal training who belongs to a ''[[beth din]]'' (rabbinical court). In Israel, religious courts handle marriage and divorce cases, conversion and financial disputes in the Jewish community.
* [[Mohel]] (circumciser) – An expert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a previously qualified ''mohel'' and performs the ''[[brit milah]]'' (circumcision).
* [[shechita|Shochet]] (ritual slaughterer) – In order for meat to be kosher, it must be slaughtered by a ''shochet'' who is an expert in the laws of kashrut and has been trained by another ''shochet.''
* [[Sofer (scribe)|Sofer]] (scribe) – [[Torah]] scrolls, ''[[tefillin]]'' (phylacteries), ''[[mezuzah|mezuzot]]'' (scrolls put on doorposts), and ''gittin'' (bills of divorce) must be written by a ''sofer'' who is an expert in Hebrew calligraphy and has undergone rigorous training in the laws of writing sacred texts.
* [[Rosh yeshiva]] – A Torah scholar who runs a [[yeshiva]].
* [[Mashgiach ruchani|Mashgiach/Mashgicha]] of a yeshiva – Depending on which yeshiva, might either be the person responsible for ensuring attendance and proper conduct, or even supervise the emotional and spiritual welfare of the students and give lectures on [[Mussar movement|mussar]] (Jewish ethics).
* [[Mashgiach|Mashgiach/Mashgicha]] – Supervises manufacturers of kosher food, importers, caterers and restaurants to ensure that the food is kosher. Must be an expert in the laws of [[kashrut]] and trained by a rabbi, if not a rabbi himself or herself.

===Historical Jewish groupings (to 1700)===
Around the 1st century CE, there were several small Jewish sects: the [[Pharisees]], [[Sadducees]], [[Zealots]], [[Essenes]], and [[early Christianity|Christians]]. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, these sects vanished.{{sfn|Schiffman|2003|p=}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Sara E. Karesh|author2=Mitchell M. Hurvitz|title=Encyclopedia of Judaism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2cCZBDm8F8C&pg=PA444|year=2005|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-6982-8|pages=444–|quote=The Sadducees disappeared when the second Temple was destroyed in the year 70 C.E and Pharisaic Judaism became the preeminent Jewish sect.|access-date=5 April 2018|archive-date=10 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203459/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2cCZBDm8F8C&pg=PA444|url-status=live}}</ref> Christianity survived, but by breaking with Judaism and [[Schism (religion)|becoming a separate religion]]; the [[Pharisees]] survived but in the form of [[Rabbinic Judaism]] (today, known simply as "Judaism").{{sfn|Schiffman|2003|p=}} The [[Sadducees]] rejected the [[Revelation|divine inspiration]] of the [[Nevi'im|Prophets]] and the [[Ketuvim|Writings]], relying only on the [[Torah]] as divinely inspired. Consequently, a number of other core tenets of the Pharisees' belief system (which became the basis for modern Judaism), were also dismissed by the Sadducees. (The [[Samaritans]] practiced a similar religion, which is traditionally considered separate from Judaism.)

Like the Sadducees who relied only on the Torah, some Jews in the 8th and 9th centuries rejected the authority and divine inspiration of the oral law as recorded in the [[Mishnah]] (and developed by later rabbis in the two Talmuds), relying instead only upon the Tanakh. These included the [[Isunians]], the [[Yudganites]], the [[Malikites]],{{Clarify|reason=|date=September 2021|text=|pre-text=|post-text=}} and others. They soon developed oral traditions of their own, which differed from the rabbinic traditions, and eventually formed the [[Karaism|Karaite]] sect. Karaites exist in small numbers today, mostly living in Israel. Rabbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews, but that the other faith is erroneous.

Over a long time, Jews formed distinct ethnic groups in several different geographic areas—amongst others, the Ashkenazi Jews (of [[Central Europe|central]] and Eastern Europe), the [[Sephardi Jews]] (of Spain, Portugal, and North Africa), the [[Beta Israel]] of Ethiopia, the [[Yemenite Jews]] from the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula and the [[Cochin Jews|Malabari and Cochin Jews]] from Kerala . Many of these groups have developed differences in their prayers, traditions and accepted canons; however, these distinctions are mainly the result of their being formed at some cultural distance from normative (rabbinic) Judaism, rather than based on any doctrinal dispute.

===Persecutions===
{{Main|Persecution of Jews|Antisemitism|History of antisemitism}}
[[Antisemitism]] arose during the [[Middle Ages]], in the form of persecutions, [[pogrom]]s, [[forced conversion]]s, expulsions, social restrictions and [[ghetto]]ization.

This was different in quality from the repressions of Jews which had occurred in ancient times. Ancient repressions were politically motivated and Jews were treated the same as members of other ethnic groups. With the rise of the Churches, the main motive for attacks on Jews changed from politics to religion and the religious motive for such attacks was specifically derived from Christian views about Jews and Judaism.<ref name="History, religion, and antisemitism" /> During the [[Middle Ages]], Jewish people who lived under Muslim rule generally experienced tolerance and integration,<ref name="Cohen, Mark R 1991">Cohen, Mark R. "[https://archive.today/20140820234902/http://www.academia.edu/6560487/Neo_lachrymose_Conception_of_Jewish-Arab_History The Neo-Lachrymose Conception of Jewish-Arab History]." ''Tikkun'' 6.3 (1991)</ref> but there were occasional outbreaks of violence like [[Almohads#Status of non-Muslims|Almohad's persecutions]].<ref name="ugr">Amira K. Bennison and María Ángeles Gallego. "[http://www.ugr.es/~estsemi/miscelanea/57/3.Gallego.08,33-51.pdf Jewish Trading in Fes On The Eve of the Almohad Conquest] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202838/http://www.ugr.es/~estsemi/miscelanea/57/3.Gallego.08,33-51.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}." MEAH, sección Hebreo 56 (2007), 33–51</ref>

===Hasidism===
{{Main|Hasidic Judaism}}
Hasidic Judaism was founded by [[Yisroel ben Eliezer (The Baal Shem Tov)|Yisroel ben Eliezer]] (1700–1760), also known as the ''Ba'al Shem Tov'' (or ''Besht''). It originated in a time of persecution of the Jewish people when European Jews had turned inward to Talmud study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too "academic", and that they no longer had any emphasis on spirituality or joy. Its adherents favored small and informal gatherings called [[Shtiebel]], which, in contrast to a traditional synagogue, could be used both as a place of worship and for celebrations involving dancing, eating, and socializing.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How and Why Did Hasidism Spread?|last=Stampfer|first=Shaul|location=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem|pages=205–207}}</ref> Ba'al Shem Tov's disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across Europe. Unlike other religions, which typically expanded through word of mouth or by use of print, Hasidism spread largely owing to [[Tzadik]]s, who used their influence to encourage others to follow the movement. Hasidism appealed to many Europeans because it was easy to learn, did not require full immediate commitment, and presented a compelling spectacle.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How and Why Did Hasidism Spread?|last=Stampfer|first=Shaul|location=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel|pages=202–204}}</ref> Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Eastern Europe. Waves of Jewish immigration in the 1880s carried it to the United States. The movement itself claims to be nothing new, but a ''refreshment'' of original Judaism. As some have put it: ''"they merely re-emphasized that which the generations had lost"''. Nevertheless, early on there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed by the Hasidim as [[Misnagdim]], (lit. "opponents"). Some of the reasons for the rejection of Hasidic Judaism were the exuberance of Hasidic worship, its deviation from tradition in ascribing infallibility and miracles to their leaders, and the concern that it might become a messianic sect. Over time differences between the Hasidim and their opponents have slowly diminished and both groups are now considered part of Haredi Judaism.

===The Enlightenment and new religious movements===
{{Main|Haskalah|Jewish religious movements}}
In the late 18th century CE, Europe was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements known as the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. The Enlightenment led to reductions in the European laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world, thus allowing Jews access to secular education and experience. A parallel Jewish movement, [[Haskalah]] or the "Jewish Enlightenment", began, especially in Central Europe and Western Europe, in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms. It placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of non-religious knowledge through reason. With the promise of political emancipation, many Jews saw no reason to continue to observe ''halakha'' and increasing numbers of Jews assimilated into Christian Europe. Modern religious movements of Judaism all formed in reaction to this trend.

In Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, [[Reform Judaism|Reform (or Liberal) Judaism]] developed, relaxing legal obligations (especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews), emulating [[Protestant]] decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition. [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] developed in reaction to Reform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citizens equal to Christians while maintaining the observance of ''halakha''. Meanwhile, in the United States, wealthy Reform Jews helped European scholars, who were Orthodox in practice but critical (and skeptical) in their study of the Bible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from Eastern Europe. These left-wing Orthodox rabbis were joined by right-wing Reform rabbis who felt that ''halakha'' should not be entirely abandoned, to form the [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative movement]]. Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah formed [[Haredi Orthodox Judaism]]. After massive movements of Jews following [[The Holocaust]] and the creation of the state of Israel, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries.

===Spectrum of observance===
[[File:The_National_Library_of_Israel_-_The_Daily_Prayers_translated_from_Hebrew_to_Marathi_1388495_2340601-10-0007_WEB.jpg|thumb|Judaism is practiced around the world. This is an 1889 [[siddur]] published in Hebrew and [[Marathi language|Marathi]] for use by the [[Bene Israel]] community]]
Jewish religious practice varies widely through all levels of observance. According to the 2001 edition of the [[National Jewish Population Survey]], in the United States' Jewish community—the world's second largest—4.3&nbsp;million Jews out of 5.1&nbsp;million had some sort of connection to the religion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishdatabank.org/studies/details.cfm?StudyID=307 |title=National Jewish Population Survey (NJPS) 2000–01 |access-date=8 May 2017 |archive-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525151442/http://www.jewishdatabank.org/studies/details.cfm?StudyID=307 |url-status=live }}</ref> Of that population of connected Jews, 80% participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance, but only 48% belonged to a congregation, and fewer than 16% attend regularly.<ref name="harrisinteractive" />