France

===Architecture===
{{Main|French architecture}}
[[File:Sainte Chapelle - Upper level 1.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Sainte Chapelle interior showing painted stonework vaulting and stained glass|[[Louis IX of France|Saint Louis]]'s [[Sainte-Chapelle]] represents the French impact on religious architecture.]]
During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. Some French castles that survived are [[Chinon (castle)|Chinon]], [[Château d'Angers]], the massive [[Château de Vincennes]] and the so-called [[Cathar castles]]. During this era, France had been using [[Romanesque architecture]] like most of Western Europe.

[[Gothic architecture]], originally named ''Opus Francigenum'' meaning "French work",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brodie |first=Allan M. |title=Oxford Art Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-884446-05-4 |chapter=Opus francigenum |doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t063666 |access-date=13 January 2019 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000063666}}</ref> was born in [[Île-de-France]] and was the first French style of architecture to be imitated throughout Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Gothic Period |url=http://www.justfrance.org/france/architecture/001.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718181401/http://www.justfrance.org/france/architecture/001.asp |archive-date=18 July 2011 |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=Justfrance.org}}</ref> Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the [[Saint Denis Basilica]] (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are [[Cathedral of Chartres|Notre-Dame de Chartres]] and [[Amiens Cathedral|Notre-Dame d'Amiens]]. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church: [[Notre-Dame de Reims]].<ref>{{In lang|fr}} [http://www.cathedrale-reims.culture.fr/histoire.html Histoire et Architecture]&nbsp;– [http://www.cathedrale-reims.culture.fr Site officiel de la Cathedrale de Notre-Dame de Reims] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160717234437/http://www.cathedrale-reims.culture.fr/|date=17 July 2016}}</ref>

The final victory in the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of the [[French Renaissance]] and several artists from Italy were invited to the French court; many residential palaces were built in the [[Loire Valley]], from 1450 as a first reference the [[Château de Montsoreau]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Loire |first=Mission Val de |title=Charles VII et Louis XI -Know -Val de Loire patrimoine mondial |url=https://www.valdeloire.org/Connaitre/Au-fil-de-l-histoire/Le-Val-de-Loire-siege-du-pouvoir-royal/Charles-VII-et-Louis-XI |access-date=10 October 2018 |website=loirevalley-worldheritage.org}}</ref> Examples of such residential castles include the [[Château de Chambord]], the [[Château de Chenonceau]], or the [[Château d'Amboise]].

Following the renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, [[French Baroque architecture|Baroque architecture]] replaced the traditional Gothic style. However, in France, baroque architecture found greater success in the secular domain than in the religious one.<ref>{{In lang|fr}} Claude Lébedel&nbsp;– Les Splendeurs du Baroque en France: ''Histoire et splendeurs du baroque en France'' page 9: "Si en allant plus loin, on prononce les mots 'art baroque en France', on provoque alors le plus souvent une moue interrogative, parfois seulement étonnée, parfois franchement réprobatrice: Mais voyons, l'art baroque n'existe pas en France!"</ref> In the secular domain, the [[Palace of Versailles]] has many baroque features. [[Jules Hardouin Mansart]], who designed the extensions to Versailles, was one of the most influential French architects of the baroque era; he is famous for his dome at [[Les Invalides]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hills |first=Helen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLmFbEdqBDUC&pg=PA86 |title=Architecture and the Politics of Gender in Early Modern Europe |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7546-0309-2 |page=86}}</ref> Some of the most impressive provincial baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as [[Place Stanislas]] in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]]. On the military architectural side, [[Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban|Vauban]] designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can be found all over Europe, the Americas, Russia and Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 July 2008 |title=Fortifications of Vauban |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1283 |access-date=9 August 2010 |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Official site of the UNESCO |url=https://en.unesco.org/ |access-date=9 August 2010 |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref>

After the Revolution, the [[Republicanism|Republicans]] favoured [[Neoclassicism]] although it was introduced in France before the revolution with such buildings as the [[Panthéon|Parisian Pantheon]] or the [[Capitole de Toulouse]]. Built during the first French Empire, the [[Arc de Triomphe]] and [[Église de la Madeleine|Sainte Marie-Madeleine]] represent the best example of [[Empire style|Empire-style]] architecture.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtabdzMdbboC&pg=PA48 |title=Paris: City Guide |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-74059-850-7 |page=48}}</ref> Under [[Napoleon III]], a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth; extravagant buildings such as the neo-baroque [[Palais Garnier]] were built. The urban planning of the time was very organised and rigorous; most notably, [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris]]. The architecture associated with this era is named [[Second Empire (architecture)|Second Empire]] in English, the term being taken from the [[Second French Empire]]. At this time there was a strong Gothic resurgence across Europe and in France; the associated architect was [[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]]. In the late 19th century, [[Gustave Eiffel]] designed many bridges, such as the [[Garabit viaduct]], and remains one of the most influential bridge designers of his time, although he is best remembered for the [[Eiffel Tower]].

In the 20th century, French-Swiss architect [[Le Corbusier]] designed several buildings in France. More recently, French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The [[Louvre Pyramid]] is an example of modern architecture added to an older building. The most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris, since 1977, new buildings had to be under {{Convert| 37| m}}.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Henri |last=Seckel |date=8 July 2008 |title=Urbanisme : Des gratte-ciel à Paris : qu'en pensez-vous &nbsp;– Posez vos questions |url=http://lci.tf1.fr/posez-vos-questions/2008-07/gratte-ciel-paris-pensez-vous-4872555.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029152433/http://lci.tf1.fr/posez-vos-questions/2008-07/gratte-ciel-paris-pensez-vous-4872555.html |archive-date=29 October 2010 |publisher=MYTF1News}}</ref> France's largest financial district is [[La Défense]], where a significant number of skyscrapers are located.<ref>[http://www.groupenci.com/uk/ile-de-france/defense.com-square.html In the heart of the main European Business area] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729154317/http://www.groupenci.com/uk/ile-de-france/defense.com-square.html|date=29 July 2010}}&nbsp;– NCI Business Center</ref> Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; an example of the way this has been done is the [[Millau Viaduct]]. Some famous modern French architects include [[Jean Nouvel]], [[Dominique Perrault]], [[Christian de Portzamparc]] and [[Paul Andreu]].