Aramaic

====Conjugations or verbal stems====
Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of [[Derived stem|derived verb stems]], to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the ''ground stem'', or ''G-stem''. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the [[Semitic root]] פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb.

By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, ''qəṭal'' means "he killed", whereas ''qaṭṭel'' means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb.

A [[preformative]], which can be -ה ''ha-'', -א ''a-'', or -ש ''ša-'', creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el, and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה ''ṭə‘â'' means "he went astray", whereas אטעי ''aṭ‘î'' means "he deceived". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial ה ''h'' sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older [[he (letter)|he]] preformative with א [[aleph]].

These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת ''hiṯ-'' or -את ''eṯ-''. The loss of the initial ה ''h'' sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al, or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually [[reflexive verb|reflexive]], but later became [[passive voice|passive]]. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb.

Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is [[Syriac language|Classical Syriac]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Stem
! Perfect active
! Imperfect active
! Perfect passive
! Imperfect passive
|-
! פעל Pə‘al (G-stem)
| כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ
| יכתב ↔ נכתב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ
| כתיב kəṯîḇ
|
|-
! התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpə‘ēl/Eṯpə‘el (Gt-stem)
| התכתב ↔ אתכתב hiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ eṯkəṯeḇ
| יתכתב ↔ נתכתב yiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ neṯkəṯeḇ
|
|
|-
! פעּל Pa‘‘ēl/Pa‘‘el (D-stem)
| כתּב kattēḇ ↔ katteḇ
| יכתּב ↔ נכתּב yəḵattēḇ ↔ nəkatteḇ
| כֻתּב kuttaḇ
|
|-
! התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpa‘‘al/Eṯpa‘‘al (Dt-stem)
| התכתּב ↔ אתכתּב hiṯkəttēḇ ↔ eṯkətteḇ
| יתכתּב ↔ נתכתּב yiṯkəttēḇ ↔ neṯkətteḇ
|
|
|-
! הפעל\אפעל Hap̄‘ēl/Ap̄‘el (C-stem)
| הכתב ↔ אכתב haḵtēḇ ↔ aḵteḇ
| יהכתב↔  נכתב yəhaḵtēḇ ↔ naḵteḇ
| הֻכתב huḵtaḇ
|
|-
! התהפעל\אתּפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al/Ettap̄‘al (Ct-stem)
| התהכתב ↔ אתּכתב hiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ ettaḵtaḇ
| יתהכתב ↔ נתּכתב yiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ nettaḵtaḇ
|
|
|}

In Imperial Aramaic, the [[participle]] began to be used for a [[historical present]]. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an [[auxiliary verb]]), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. Aramaic [[syntax]] usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO).  Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence.