San Diego Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! PreviewAdvancedSpecial charactersHelpHeadingLevel 2Level 3Level 4Level 5FormatInsertLatinLatin extendedIPASymbolsGreekGreek extendedCyrillicArabicArabic extendedHebrewBanglaTamilTeluguSinhalaDevanagariGujaratiThaiLaoKhmerCanadian AboriginalRunesÁáÀàÂâÄäÃãǍǎĀāĂ㥹ÅåĆćĈĉÇçČčĊċĐđĎďÉéÈèÊêËëĚěĒēĔĕĖėĘęĜĝĢģĞğĠġĤĥĦħÍíÌìÎîÏïĨĩǏǐĪīĬĭİıĮįĴĵĶķĹĺĻļĽľŁłŃńÑñŅņŇňÓóÒòÔôÖöÕõǑǒŌōŎŏǪǫŐőŔŕŖŗŘřŚśŜŝŞşŠšȘșȚțŤťÚúÙùÛûÜüŨũŮůǓǔŪūǖǘǚǜŬŭŲųŰűŴŵÝýŶŷŸÿȲȳŹźŽžŻżÆæǢǣØøŒœßÐðÞþƏəFormattingLinksHeadingsListsFilesDiscussionReferencesDescriptionWhat you typeWhat you getItalic''Italic text''Italic textBold'''Bold text'''Bold textBold & italic'''''Bold & italic text'''''Bold & italic textDescriptionWhat you typeWhat you getReferencePage text.<ref>[https://www.example.org/ Link text], additional text.</ref>Page text.[1]Named referencePage text.<ref name="test">[https://www.example.org/ Link text]</ref>Page text.[2]Additional use of the same referencePage text.<ref name="test" />Page text.[2]Display references<references />↑ Link text, additional text.↑ Link text==History== {{see also|History of San Diego}} {{For timeline|Timeline of San Diego}} ===Pre-colonial period=== [[File:Kumeyaay (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Full length portrait of a man in his thirties wearing a long robe, woman and child visible behind him and dog to his left|The [[Kumeyaay people|Kumeyaay]], referred to by the Spanish as ''Diegueños'', have inhabited the area for thousands of years.]] What has been referred to as the [[San Dieguito complex]] was established in the area at least 9,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Catalysts to complexity: late Holocene societies of the California coast |date=2002 |publisher=Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA |isbn=978-1-938770-67-8 |location=Los Angeles |pages=30 |oclc=745176510}}</ref> The [[Kumeyaay]] may have culturally evolved from this complex or migrated into the area around 1000 C.E.<ref>{{Cite book |last=High |first=Gary and Jerri-Ann Jacobs High Tech |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w48Ivy4JCQ8C |title=San Diego Bay: A Story of Exploitation and Restoration |date=2007 |publisher=California Sea Grant College Program |isbn=978-1-888691-17-7 |language=en |quote=The Kumeyaay could have derived from the San Dieguito or they may have arrived from the desert around 1000 C.E.}}</ref> Archaeologist [[Malcolm Jennings Rogers|Malcolm Rogers]] hypothesized that the early cultures of San Diego were separate from the [[Kumeyaay]], yet this claim is disputed, with others noting that it does not account for [[Sociocultural evolution|cultural evolution]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Loveless |first1=R. |title=Ethical approaches to human remains: a global challenge in bioarchaeology and forensic anthropology |last2=Linton |first2=B. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |others=Kirsty Squires, David Errickson, Nicholas Márquez-Grant |isbn=978-3-030-32926-6 |edition= |location=Cham, Switzerland |pages=419–420 |chapter=Culturally Sensitive and Scientifically Sound |oclc=1135205590 |quote=He created a sequence of cultural periods... the San Dieguito Complex and La Jolla Complex... suggested that... [they were] mutually exclusive and not associated with the ancestral populations of the contemporary Kumeyaay. The problem with Rogers' hypothesis is that it did not account for cultural evolution... Rogers' theories were, and continue to be, a popular paradigm... At the end of his career, Rogers re-evaluated his original conclusions regarding the cultural groups he had established...}}</ref> Rogers later reevaluated his claims, yet they were influential in shaping historical tellings of early San Diego history.<ref name=":3" /> The Kumeyaay established villages scattered across the region, including the village of [[Kosa'aay]] which was the Kumeyaay village that the future settlement of San Diego would stem from in today's [[Old Town, San Diego|Old Town]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Mogilner|first=Geoffrey|title=Cosoy: Birthplace of New California|url=https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/2016/april/cosoy-birthplace-new-california/|access-date=August 27, 2020|website=San Diego History Center {{!}} San Diego, CA {{!}} Our City, Our Story|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Kosa'aay (Cosoy) History|url=http://www.cosoy.org/History.html|access-date=August 27, 2020|website=www.cosoy.org}}</ref> The village of Kosa'aay was made up of thirty to forty families living in pyramid-shaped housing structures and was supported by a freshwater spring from the hillsides.<ref name=":1" /> ===Spanish period=== [[File:The landing of Cabrillo on California (detail from mural by Daniel Sayre Groesbeck at the Santa Barbara County Courthouse).tif|thumb|left|Portuguese explorer [[Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo]] landing in [[San Diego Bay]] in 1542, claiming California for the [[Spanish Empire]]]] The first European to visit the region was explorer [[Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo]], sailing under the flag of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] but possibly [[Portuguese people|born in Portugal]]. Sailing his flagship ''San Salvador'' from [[Barra de Navidad|Navidad]], New Spain, Cabrillo claimed the bay for the [[Spanish Empire]] in 1542, and named the site "San Miguel".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sandiegohistory.org/bio/cabrillo/cabrillo.htm |title=San Diego Historical Society |publisher=Sandiegohistory.org |access-date=March 12, 2011 |archive-date=May 5, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505173316/http://www.sandiegohistory.org/bio/cabrillo/cabrillo.htm }}</ref> In November 1602, [[Sebastián Vizcaíno]] was sent to map the California coast. Arriving on his flagship ''San Diego'', Vizcaíno surveyed the harbor and what are now [[Mission Bay, San Diego, California|Mission Bay]] and [[Point Loma]] and named the area for the Catholic [[Didacus of Alcalá|Saint Didacus]], a [[Spaniard]] more commonly known as ''San Diego de Alcalá''. On November 12, 1602, the first Christian religious service of record in [[Alta California]] was conducted by Friar Antonio de la Ascensión, a member of Vizcaíno's expedition, to celebrate the feast day of San Diego.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last=Mills |first=James |title=San Diego...Where California Began |url=https://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/67october/began.htm |date=October 1967 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614235048/https://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/67october/began.htm |archive-date=June 14, 2011 |journal=Journal of San Diego History |volume=13 |number=4 |access-date=February 17, 2017}}</ref> The permanent [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]] of both California and San Diego began in 1769 with the arrival of four contingents of Spaniards from New Spain and the [[Baja California]] peninsula. Two seaborne parties reached San Diego Bay: the ''San Carlos'', under Vicente Vila and including as notable members the engineer and cartographer [[Miguel Costansó]] and the soldier and future governor [[Pedro Fages]], and the ''San Antonio'', under [[Juan José Pérez Hernández|Juan Pérez]]. An initial overland expedition to San Diego from the south was led by the soldier [[Fernando Rivera y Moncada|Fernando Rivera]] and included the [[Franciscan]] missionary, explorer, and chronicler [[Juan Crespí]], followed by a second party led by the designated governor [[Gaspar de Portolà]] and including the mission president (and now saint) [[Junípero Serra]].<ref>Pourade, Richard F. 1960. ''The History of San Diego: The Explorers''. Union-Tribune Publishing Company, San Diego.</ref> [[File:Mission San Diego, c. 1820.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mission San Diego de Alcalá]] was founded in 1769 by [[Saint Junípero Serra]], making it the oldest of the [[Spanish missions in California]].]] In May 1769, Portolà established the Fort [[Presidio of San Diego]] on a hill near the [[San Diego River]] above the Kumeyaay village of Cosoy,<ref name=":1" /> which would later become incorporated into the Spanish settlement,<ref name=":2" /> making it the first settlement by Europeans in what is now the state of California. In July of the same year, [[Mission San Diego de Alcalá]] was founded by Franciscan friars under Serra.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ide|first=Arthur Frederick|date=Fall 1976|title=San Diego: The Saint and the City|journal=Journal of San Diego History|volume=22|issue=4|url=https://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/76fall/saint.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sandiegohistory.org/timeline/timeline1.htm |title=San Diego Historical Society:Timeline of San Diego history |publisher=Sandiegohistory.org |access-date=May 4, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224204925/https://www.sandiegohistory.org/timeline/timeline1.htm }}</ref> The mission became a site for a Kumeyaay revolt in 1775, which forced the mission to relocate {{Convert | 6 | mi | 0 | spell = in}} up the San Diego River.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Carrico|first=Richard|title=Sociopolitical Aspects of the 1775 Revolt at Mission San Diego de Alcala|url=https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1997/july/missionrevolt/|access-date=August 27, 2020|website=San Diego History Center {{!}} San Diego, CA {{!}} Our City, Our Story|language=en-US}}</ref> By 1797, the mission boasted the largest native population in Alta California, with over 1,400 neophytes living in and around the mission proper.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.missionscalifornia.com/keyfacts/san-diego-de-alcala.html |title=Keyfacts |publisher=missionscalifornia.com |access-date=July 1, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610233845/http://www.missionscalifornia.com/keyfacts/san-diego-de-alcala.html |archive-date=June 10, 2010 }}</ref> Mission San Diego was the southern anchor in [[Alta California]] of the historic mission trail [[El Camino Real (California)|El Camino Real]]. Both the Presidio and the Mission are [[National Register of Historic Places listings in San Diego County, California|National Historic Landmarks]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.missionsandiego.com/ |title=Mission San Diego |publisher=Mission San Diego |access-date=July 1, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceID=130&resourceType=Site |title=National Park Service, National Historical Landmarks Program: San Diego Presidio |publisher=Tps.cr.nps.gov |date=October 10, 1960 |access-date=May 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721183215/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceID=130&resourceType=Site |archive-date=July 21, 2011 }}</ref> ===Mexican period=== [[File:José_María_Estudillo.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[José María Estudillo]] served as commandant of the [[Presidio of San Diego]] and founded the [[Estudillo family of California|Estudillo family]], a powerful clan of [[Californio]]s.]] In 1821, [[Mexico]] [[Mexican War of Independence|won its independence from Spain]], and San Diego became part of the Mexican territory of [[Alta California]]. In 1822, Mexico began its attempt to extend its authority over the coastal territory of Alta California. The fort on Presidio Hill was gradually abandoned, while the town of San Diego grew up on the level land below Presidio Hill. The Mission was [[Mexican secularization act of 1833|secularized by the Mexican government in 1834]], and most of the Mission lands were granted to former soldiers. The 432 [[Vecino|residents]] of the town petitioned the governor to form a [[Cabildo (council)|pueblo]], and [[Juan María Osuna]] was elected the first ''[[alcalde]]'' ("municipal magistrate"), defeating [[Pío Pico]] in the vote. Beyond the town, Mexican [[land grant]]s expanded the number of [[Ranchos of California|California ranchos]] that modestly added to the local economy. (See, ''[[List of pre-statehood mayors of San Diego]]''.) However, San Diego had been losing population throughout the 1830s, due to increasing tension between the settlers and the indigenous [[Kumeyaay]] and in 1838 the town lost its pueblo status because its size dropped to an estimated 100 to 150 residents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sandiegohistory.org/timeline/timeline1.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224204925/https://www.sandiegohistory.org/timeline/timeline1.htm|archive-date=December 24, 2015|title=Timeline of San Diego History {{!}} San Diego History Center|date=December 24, 2015|access-date=August 7, 2018}}</ref> The [[Ranchos of California|ranchos]] in the San Diego region would face Kumeyaay raids in the late 1830s and the town itself would face raids in the 1840s.<ref>Connolly, Mike. [https://www.kumeyaay.com/kumeyaay-the-mexican-period.html "Kumeyaay – The Mexican Period"]. ''kumeyaay.com''.</ref> Americans gained an increased awareness of California, and its commercial possibilities, from the writings of two countrymen involved in the often officially forbidden, to foreigners, but economically significant hide and tallow trade, where San Diego was a major port and the only one with an adequate harbor: [[William Shaler]]'s "Journal of a Voyage Between China and the North-Western Coast of America, Made in 1804" and [[Richard Henry Dana Jr.|Richard Henry Dana]]'s more substantial and convincing account, of his 1834–36 voyage, the classic ''[[Two Years Before the Mast]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bean |first=Walton |title=California: An Interpretive History |date=1973 |edition=Second |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill, Inc. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/californiainterp00bean/page/74 74–76] |isbn=978-0-07-004224-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/californiainterp00bean/page/74 }}</ref> [[File:Casa de Estudillo courtyard 04.jpg|thumb|left|[[Casa de Estudillo]], built 1827, is one of San Diego's oldest buildings and served as inspiration for [[Helen Hunt Jackson]]'s 1884 novel ''[[Ramona]]''.]] In 1846, the United States went to war against Mexico and sent a naval and land [[Conquest of California|expedition to conquer Alta California]]. At first, they had an easy time of it, capturing the major ports including San Diego, but the Californios in southern Alta California struck back. Following the successful revolt in [[Los Angeles]], the American garrison at San Diego was driven out without firing a shot in early October 1846. Mexican partisans held San Diego for three weeks until October 24, 1846, when the Americans recaptured it. For the next several months the Americans were blockaded inside the pueblo. Skirmishes occurred daily and snipers shot into the town every night. The Californios drove cattle away from the pueblo hoping to starve the Americans and their Californio supporters out. On December 1, the American garrison learned that the dragoons of General [[Stephen W. Kearney]] were at [[Warner's Ranch]]. Commodore [[Robert F. Stockton]] sent a mounted force of fifty under Captain [[Archibald Gillespie]] to march north to meet him. Their joint command of 150 men, returning to San Diego, encountered about 93 Californios under [[Andrés Pico]]. [[File:Battle of San Pasqual by William H Meyers c1846.jpg|thumb|right|The 1846 [[Battle of San Pasqual]] was a decisive battle between American and [[Californio]] forces.]] In the ensuing [[Battle of San Pasqual]], fought in the [[San Pasqual Valley]] which is now part of the city of San Diego, the Americans suffered their worst losses in the campaign. Subsequently, a column led by Lieutenant Gray arrived from San Diego, rescuing Kearny's battered and blockaded command.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/2003/january/war-2/|first=Richard|last=Griswold del Castillo|title=The U.S.-Mexican War in San Diego, 1846–1847 |work=San Diego Historical Society Quarterly |date=Winter 2003|volume=49|issue=1}}</ref> Stockton and Kearny went on to recover Los Angeles and force the capitulation of Alta California with the "[[Treaty of Cahuenga]]" on January 13, 1847. As a result of the [[Mexican–American War]] of 1846–48, the territory of Alta California, including San Diego, was ceded to the United States by Mexico, under the terms of the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] in 1848. The Mexican negotiators of that treaty tried to retain San Diego as part of Mexico, but the Americans insisted that San Diego was "for every commercial purpose of nearly equal importance to us with that of San Francisco", and the Mexican–American border was eventually established to be one league south of the southernmost point of [[San Diego Bay]], so as to include the entire bay within the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Griswold de Castillo|1990|page=39}}</ref> ===American period=== [[File:San Diego California Looking East Across the Bay by Alfred Mathews 1873.jpg|thumb|left|View of [[San Diego Bay]] in 1873 following the [[conquest of California|U.S. conquest of California]]]] The state of California was admitted to the United States in 1850. That same year San Diego was designated the seat of the newly established County of San Diego and was incorporated as a city. [[Joshua H. Bean]], the last alcalde of San Diego, was elected the first mayor. Two years later the city was bankrupt;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sandiego.gov/city-clerk/aboutus/history.shtml|title=A History of San Diego Government|work=Office of the City Clerk|publisher=City of San Diego|access-date=May 27, 2014|archive-date=May 5, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505220356/http://www.sandiego.gov/city-clerk/aboutus/history.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> the California legislature revoked the city's charter and placed it under control of a board of trustees, where it remained until 1889. A city charter was reestablished in 1889, and today's city charter was adopted in 1931.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sandiego.gov/city-clerk/officialdocs/legisdocs/charter.shtml |title=City of San Diego website |publisher=Sandiego.gov |access-date=July 1, 2010 |archive-date=October 11, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011124524/http://www.sandiego.gov/city-clerk/officialdocs/legisdocs/charter.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> The original town of San Diego was located at the foot of Presidio Hill, in the area which is now [[Old Town San Diego State Historic Park]]. The location was not ideal, being several miles away from navigable water at its port at [[La Playa, San Diego|La Playa]]. In 1850, [[William Heath Davis]] promoted a new development by the bay shore called "New San Diego", several miles south of the original settlement; however, for several decades the new development consisted only of a pier, a few houses and an [[San Diego Barracks|Army depot]] for the support of [[Fort Yuma]]. After 1854, the fort became supplied by sea and by [[Steamboats of the Colorado River|steamboats on the Colorado River]] and the depot fell into disuse. From 1857 to 1860, San Diego became the western terminus of the [[San Antonio-San Diego Mail Line]], the earliest overland [[stagecoach]] and mail operation from the [[Eastern United States]] to California, coming from [[Texas]] through [[New Mexico Territory]] in less than 30 days.<ref name = "Pierce">Basil C. Pearce, [http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/1969/april/jackass/ "The Jackass Mail—San Antonio and San Diego Mail Line"], ''San Diego Historical Society Quarterly'', Spring 1969, Volume 15, Number 2</ref> [[File:View of the US Grant with the main fountain at the entrance (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|alt=Oval, black and white shoulder-height portrait of a man in his forties or fifties, slightly balding wearing a suit|[[Horton Plaza and Broadway Fountain|Horton Plaza]] honors [[Alonzo Horton]], who helped develop [[Downtown San Diego|Downtown]].]] In the late 1860s, [[Alonzo Horton]] promoted a move to the bayside area, which he called "New Town" and which became [[Downtown San Diego]]. Horton promoted the area heavily, and people and businesses began to relocate to New Town because its location on [[San Diego Bay]] was convenient to shipping. New Town soon eclipsed the original settlement, known to this day as [[Old Town, San Diego, California|Old Town]], and became the economic and governmental heart of the city.<ref name=Cornerstone>{{harvnb|Engstrand|2005|page=80}}</ref> Still, San Diego remained a relative backwater town until the arrival of a railroad connection in 1878. In 1884–1886, [[John J. Montgomery]] made the first controlled flights by an American in a heavier-than-air unpowered glider just south of San Diego at Otay Mesa, helping to pioneer a new science of aerodynamics. In 1912, San Diego was the site of a [[San Diego free speech fight|free speech fight]] between the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] and the city government who passed an ordinance forbidding the [[freedom of speech]] along an area of "Soapbox Row" that led to civil disobedience, [[vigilantism]], [[police violence]], the abduction of [[Emma Goldman]]'s husband [[Ben Reitman]] and [[San Diego free speech fight|multiple riots]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hall|first=Matthew T.|date=February 8, 2012|title=100 years ago, San Diego banned free speech|url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-100-years-ago-san-diego-banned-free-speech-2012feb08-story.html|access-date=July 9, 2021|website=San Diego Union-Tribune|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Dotinga|first=Randy|date=March 15, 2011|title=When San Diego Had Its Own Big Labor Clash|url=https://www.voiceofsandiego.org/topics/news/when-san-diego-had-its-own-big-labor-clash/|access-date=July 9, 2021|website=Voice of San Diego|language=en-US}}</ref> San Diego's proximity to Tijuana during the [[Mexican Revolution]] made this one of the most significant [[free speech fights]] during the [[Wobbly]] era.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Waller|first=Tom|date=April 2, 1992|title=The Wobblies and San Diego's shame {{!}} San Diego Reader|url=https://www.sandiegoreader.com/news/1992/apr/02/battle-soapbox-row/|access-date=July 9, 2021|website=San Diego Reader|language=en}}</ref> In 1916, the neighborhood of [[Stingaree, San Diego|Stingaree]], the original home of San Diego's first [[Chinatown]] and "Soapbox Row", was demolished by anti-[[vice]] campaigners to make way for the [[Gaslamp Quarter, San Diego|Gaslamp Quarter]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Shady Ladies in the "Stingaree District" When The Red Lights Went Out in San Diego|url=http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/74spring/stingaree.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051024201814/http://sandiegohistory.org/journal/74spring/stingaree.htm|archive-date=October 24, 2005|access-date=March 8, 2011|publisher=San Diego History Center}}</ref> [[File:Guide Book of the Panama California Exposition (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Hand drawn illustration of Balboa Park|[[Balboa Park (San Diego)|Balboa Park]] was built for the [[Panama–California Exposition|Panama-California Exposition of 1915]].]] In the early part of the 20th century, San Diego hosted the [[World's Fair]] twice: the [[Panama-California Exposition (1915)]] and the [[California Pacific International Exposition]] in 1935. Both expositions were held in [[Balboa Park (San Diego)|Balboa Park]], and many of the Spanish/Baroque-style buildings that were built for those expositions remain to this day as central features of the park. The buildings were intended to be temporary structures, but most remained in continuous use until they progressively fell into disrepair. Most were eventually rebuilt, using castings of the original façades to retain the architectural style.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20050501/news_1m1balboa.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318030233/http://www.utsandiego.com/uniontrib/20050501/news_1m1balboa.html|archive-date=March 18, 2015|title=Balboa Park future is full of repair jobs |work=[[The San Diego Union-Tribune]]|date=March 18, 2015|access-date=August 7, 2018}}</ref> The menagerie of exotic animals featured at the 1915 exposition provided the basis for the [[San Diego Zoo]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/78summer/zoo.htm |author1=Marjorie Betts Shaw |title=The San Diego Zoological Garden: A Foundation to Build on |journal=Journal of San Diego History |volume =24| issue = 3, Summer 1978 |access-date=May 4, 2011}}</ref> During the 1950s there was a citywide festival called [[Fiesta del Pacifico]] highlighting the area's Spanish and Mexican past.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sandiegohistory.org/books/pourade/dream/dreamchapter5.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304120140/http://www.sandiegohistory.org/books/pourade/dream/dreamchapter5.htm|archive-date=March 4, 2016|title=CHAPTER 5: A Fiesta – Re-living the Days of the Dons {{!}} San Diego History Center|date=March 4, 2016|access-date=August 7, 2018}}</ref> In the 2010s there was a proposal for a large-scale celebration of the 100th anniversary of Balboa Park, but the plans were abandoned when the organization tasked with putting on the celebration went out of business.<ref name="Tony">{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2014/mar/05/local/la-me-balboa-park-20140306|title=Balboa Park centennial event organizers end efforts|last=Perry|first=Tony|date=March 5, 2014|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=April 8, 2014}}</ref> The southern portion of the [[Point Loma, San Diego|Point Loma]] peninsula was set aside for military purposes as early as 1852. Over the next several decades the [[United States Army|Army]] set up a series of coastal artillery batteries and named the area [[Fort Rosecrans]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.militarymuseum.org/FtRosecrans.html|title=Historic California Posts: Fort Rosecrans|work=California State Military Museum|access-date=November 26, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714022628/http://www.militarymuseum.org/FtRosecrans.html|archive-date=July 14, 2007}}</ref> Significant U.S. Navy presence began in 1901 with the establishment of the Navy Coaling Station in Point Loma, and expanded greatly during the 1920s.<ref>[http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/local/kearny/page00d.html University of San Diego: Military Bases in San Diego] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070411224332/http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/local/kearny/page00d.html |date=April 11, 2007 }}</ref> By 1930, the city was host to [[Naval Base San Diego]], [[Naval Training Center San Diego]], [[San Diego Naval Hospital]], [[Camp Matthews]], and [[Camp Kearny]] (now [[Marine Corps Air Station Miramar]]). The city was also an early center for aviation: as early as World War I, San Diego was proclaiming itself "The Air Capital of the West".<ref name = "Shepherd">{{cite journal|url=http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/94winter/eagle.htm |author1=Gerald A. Shepherd |title=When the Lone Eagle returned to San Diego |journal=Journal of San Diego History |volume= 40| issue = s. 1 and 2, Winter 1992 |access-date=May 4, 2011}}</ref> The city was home to important airplane developers and manufacturers like Ryan Airlines (later [[Ryan Aeronautical]]), founded in 1925, and [[Consolidated Aircraft]] (later [[Convair]]), founded in 1923.<ref>{{cite web|title=Consolidated Aircraft/Convair Online Exhibition|url=http://sandiegoairandspace.org/exhibits/consolidated_aircraft_exhibit/|publisher=San Diego Air & Space Museum|access-date=September 22, 2014}}</ref> [[Charles A. Lindbergh]]'s plane [[The Spirit of St. Louis]] was built in San Diego in 1927 by Ryan Airlines.<ref name = "Shepherd" /> [[File:Corner of San Diego's Fifth Street and F Street, looking north, ca.1903 (CHS-9776).jpg|thumb|right|[[Downtown San Diego]], {{Circa|1903}}]] During [[World War II]], San Diego became a major hub of military and defense activity, due to the presence of so many military installations and defense manufacturers. The city's population grew rapidly during and after World War II, more than doubling between 1930 (147,995) and 1950 (333,865).<ref name="RM 54">Moffatt, Riley. ''Population History of Western U.S. Cities & Towns, 1850–1990''. Lanham: Scarecrow, 1996, 54.</ref> During the final months of the war, the Japanese had a plan to target multiple U.S. cities for [[biological attack]], starting with San Diego. The plan was called "[[Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night]]" and called for [[kamikaze]] planes filled with fleas infected with plague (''[[Yersinia pestis]]'') to crash into civilian population centers in the city, hoping to spread plague in the city and effectively kill tens of thousands of civilians. The plan was scheduled to launch on September 22, 1945, but was not carried out because [[Japanese surrender|Japan surrendered]] five weeks earlier.<ref>Naomi Baumslag, ''Murderous Medicine: Nazi Doctors, Human Experimentation, and Typhus'', 2005, p.207</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.npr.org/2011/04/25/135638924/where-to-find-the-worlds-most-wicked-bugs| author=Amy Stewart| title=Where To Find The World's Most 'Wicked Bugs': Fleas| publisher=National Public Radio| date=April 25, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2001/06/05/commentary/world-commentary/the-trial-of-unit-731/| author=Russell Working| title=The trial of Unit 731| newspaper=The Japan Times| date=June 5, 2001}}</ref> After World War II, the military continued to play a major role in the local economy, but post-[[Cold War]] cutbacks took a heavy toll on the local defense and aerospace industries. The resulting downturn led San Diego leaders to seek to diversify the city's economy by focusing on research and science, as well as tourism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.milkeninstitute.org/publications/publications.taf?function=detail&ID=312&cat=resrep |title=Milken Institute |publisher=Milken Institute |access-date=July 1, 2010}}</ref> [[File:Sdmarina.JPG|thumb|left|Starting in the 1980s, many areas of Downtown, such as the [[Marina, San Diego|Marina District]], underwent [[Urban renewal|redevelopment]].]] From the start of the 20th century through the 1970s, the American [[tuna]] fishing fleet and tuna canning industry were based in San Diego, "the tuna capital of the world".<ref name="gala">{{cite web|url=http://www.sandiegohistory.org/press/MOH2012|title=San Diego History Center Honors San Diego's Tuna Fishing Industry at Annual Gala|work=San Diego History Center|access-date=September 1, 2012}}</ref> San Diego's first tuna cannery was founded in 1911, and by the mid-1930s the canneries employed more than 1,000 people. A large fishing fleet supported the canneries, mostly staffed by immigrant fishermen from [[Japan]], and later from the [[Autonomous regions of Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Azores]] and [[Italy]] whose influence is still felt in neighborhoods like [[Little Italy, San Diego|Little Italy]] and [[Point Loma, San Diego|Point Loma]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=The Journal of San Diego History|author1=Felando, August |author2=Medina, Harold |name-list-style=amp |title=The Origins of California's High-Seas Tuna Fleet|pages=5–8, 18|volume=58|date=Winter–Spring 2012|issue=1 & 2|issn=0022-4383}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2006/nov/19/realestate/re-guide19|title=It's the old country, with new condos|last=Lechowitzky|first=Irene|date=November 19, 2006|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=September 1, 2012}}</ref> Due to rising costs and foreign competition, the last of the canneries closed in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.4sd.signonsandiego.com/news/2009/jun/20/1ez20history182544-san-diego-once-was-tuna-capital/?ap|title=San Diego once was 'Tuna Capital of World'|last=Crawford|first=Richard|date=June 20, 2009|work=San Diego Union Tribune|access-date=September 1, 2012}}{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Downtown San Diego was in decline in the 1960s and 1970s, but experienced some urban renewal since the early 1980s, including the opening of [[Westfield Horton Plaza|Horton Plaza]], the revival of the [[Gaslamp Quarter, San Diego, California|Gaslamp Quarter]], and the construction of the [[San Diego Convention Center]]; [[Petco Park]] opened in 2004.<ref name="Erie">{{cite journal|last=Erie|first=Steven P.|author2=Kogan, Vladimir |author3=MacKenzi, Scott A.|title=Redevelopment, San Diego Style: The Limits of Public–Private Partnerships|journal=Urban Affairs Review|date=May 2010 |volume=45|issue=5|pages=644–678|doi=10.1177/1078087409359760|s2cid=154024558}}</ref> Outside of downtown, San Diego annexed large swaths of land and for suburban expansion to the north and control of the [[San Ysidro Port of Entry]]. As the [[Cold War]] ended, the military shrank and so did defense spending. San Diego has since become a center of the emerging biotech industry and is home to telecommunications giant [[Qualcomm]]. San Diego had also grown in the tourism industry with the popularity of attractions such as the [[San Diego Zoo]], [[SeaWorld San Diego]], and [[Legoland California]] in [[Carlsbad, California|Carlsbad]].{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page