Palestinians

===Emergence of a distinct identity===

The timing and causes behind the emergence of a distinctively Palestinian national identity among the Arabs of Palestine are matters of scholarly disagreement. Some argue that it can be traced as far back as the [[peasants' revolt in Palestine]] in 1834 (or even as early as the 17th century), while others argue that it did not emerge until after the Mandatory Palestine period.<ref name="Likhovski" /><ref name="Sorek" /> Legal historian Assaf Likhovski states that the prevailing view is that Palestinian identity originated in the early decades of the 20th century,<ref name="Likhovski">{{cite book |last=Likhovski |first=Assaf |title=Law and identity in mandate Palestine |year=2006 |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-3017-8 |page=174 }}</ref> when an embryonic desire among Palestinians for self-government in the face of generalized fears that [[Zionism]] would lead to a [[Jewish state]] and the dispossession of the Arab majority crystallised among most editors, Christian and Muslim, of local newspapers.<ref>Rashid Khalidi, "Palestinian Identity", [https://books.google.com/books?id=YDPKFyZ38qsC&pg=PA143 pp. 117ff, p. 142] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129193059/https://books.google.com/books?id=YDPKFyZ38qsC&pg=PA143#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=29 November 2023 }}.</ref> The term itself ''Filasṭīnī'' was first introduced by  [[Khalil Beidas|Khalīl Beidas]] in a translation of a Russian work on the Holy Land into Arabic in 1898. After that, its usage gradually spread so that, by 1908, with the loosening of censorship controls under late Ottoman rule, a  number of Muslim, Christian and Jewish correspondents writing for newspapers began to use the term with great frequency in referring to the 'Palestinian people' (''ahl/ahālī Filasṭīn''), 'Palestinians' (''al-Filasṭīnīyūn''), the 'sons of Palestine' (''abnā’ Filasṭīn'') or to 'Palestinian society' (''al-mujtama' al-filasṭīnī'').<ref name="ZachBeška">Zachary J Foster, Emanuel Beška, [https://www.academia.edu/49925414/The_Origins_of_the_term_Palestinian_Filasṭīnī_in_late_Ottoman_Palestine_1898_1914?email_work_card=view-paper "The Origins of the term 'Palestinian' ('Filasṭīnī') in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898–1914] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015103833/https://www.academia.edu/49925414/The_Origins_of_the_term_Palestinian_Filas%E1%B9%AD%C4%ABn%C4%AB_in_late_Ottoman_Palestine_1898_1914?email_work_card=view-paper |date=15 October 2023 }}", ''Academic Letters 2021 pp.1–22''</ref>[[File:Coat of arms of Palestine.svg|thumb|upright|left|[[Saladin]]'s Falcon, the [[Coat of arms of Palestine|coat of arms]] and emblem of the [[Palestinian Authority]]]]
Whatever the differing viewpoints over the timing, causal mechanisms, and orientation of Palestinian nationalism, by the early 20th century strong opposition to Zionism and evidence of a burgeoning nationalistic Palestinian identity is found in the content of Arabic-language newspapers in Palestine, such as ''[[Al-Karmil (newspaper)|Al-Karmil]]'' (est. 1908) and ''[[Filastin (newspaper)|Filasteen]]'' (est. 1911).<ref name=Khalidip124>Khalidi, 1997, pp. 124–127.</ref> Filasteen initially focused its critique of Zionism around the failure of the Ottoman administration to control Jewish immigration and the large influx of foreigners, later exploring the impact of Zionist land-purchases on Palestinian peasants ({{lang-ar|فلاحين}}, ''[[fellahin]]''), expressing growing concern over land dispossession and its implications for the society at large.<ref name=Khalidip124/>

Historian [[Rashid Khalidi]]'s 1997 book ''Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness'' is considered a "foundational text" on the subject.<ref>[https://cup.columbia.edu/book/palestinian-identity/9780231150743 "Palestinian Identity – The ...."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117022355/https://cup.columbia.edu/book/palestinian-identity/9780231150743 |date=17 November 2023 }} ''Columbia University Press''. 10 December 2018.</ref> He notes that the archaeological strata that denote the history of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]&nbsp;– encompassing the [[Biblical]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Byzantine]], [[Umayyad]], [[Abbasid]], [[Fatimid]], [[Crusade]]r, [[Ayyubid]], [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] and [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] periods&nbsp;– form part of the identity of the modern-day Palestinian people, as they have come to understand it over the last century.<ref name=Khalidip18>[[Rashid Khalidi]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YDPKFyZ38qsC&pg=PA18 Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129193200/https://books.google.com/books?id=YDPKFyZ38qsC&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=29 November 2023 }}'', New York: Columbia University Press, 2010, p. 18.</ref> Noting that Palestinian identity has never been an exclusive one, with "Arabism, religion, and local loyalties" playing an important role, Khalidi cautions against the efforts of some extreme advocates of Palestinian nationalism to "anachronistically" read back into history a nationalist consciousness that is in fact "relatively modern".<ref>Khalidi, 2010, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YDPKFyZ38qsC&pg=PA149 p. 149] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129193101/https://books.google.com/books?id=YDPKFyZ38qsC&pg=PA149#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=29 November 2023 }}.</ref><ref name=Khalidip19>Khalidi, 1997, pp. 19–21.</ref>

Khalidi argues that the modern national identity of Palestinians has its roots in [[nationalism|nationalist]] discourses that emerged among the peoples of the [[Ottoman empire]] in the late 19th century that sharpened following the demarcation of modern nation-state boundaries in the [[Middle East]] after [[World War I]].<ref name=Khalidip19/> Khalidi also states that although the challenge posed by [[Zionism]] played a role in shaping this identity, that "it is a serious mistake to suggest that Palestinian identity emerged mainly as a response to Zionism."<ref name=Khalidip19/>

[[File:Khalil Beidas 1898 use of the word Palestinians in the preface to his translation of Akim Olesnitsky's A Description of the Holy Land.png|left|thumb|[[Khalil Beidas]]'s 1898 use of the word "Palestinians" in the [[preface]] to his translation of [[w:ru:Олесницкий, Аким Алексеевич|Akim Olesnitsky's]] [[:File:Olesnitsky A. The Holy Land. Vol. 1 (Russian).djvu|A Description of the Holy Land]]<ref name="Fos">Zachary Foster, [http://blog.palestine-studies.org/2016/02/18/who-was-the-first-palestinian-in-modern-history "Who Was The First Palestinian in Modern History"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229164114/http://blog.palestine-studies.org/2016/02/18/who-was-the-first-palestinian-in-modern-history/ |date=29 February 2016 }} The Palestine Square 18 February 2016</ref>]]Conversely, historian [[James L. Gelvin]] argues that [[Palestinian nationalism]] was a direct reaction to Zionism. In his book ''The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War'' he states that "Palestinian nationalism emerged during the interwar period in response to [[Zionism|Zionist]] immigration and settlement."<ref name="Gelvin 92">Gelvin, 2005, pp. 92–93.</ref> Gelvin argues that this fact does not make the Palestinian identity any less legitimate: "The fact that Palestinian nationalism developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some 'other.' Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose."<ref name="Gelvin 92" />

David Seddon writes that "[t]he creation of Palestinian identity in its contemporary sense was formed essentially during the 1960s, with the creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization." He adds, however, that "the existence of a population with a recognizably similar name ('the Philistines') in Biblical times suggests a degree of continuity over a long historical period (much as 'the Israelites' of the Bible suggest a long historical continuity in the same region)."<ref>David Seddon (ed.)''A political and economic dictionary of the Middle East,'' Taylor & Francis, 2004. p. 532.</ref>

[[Baruch Kimmerling]] and Joel S. Migdal consider the 1834 [[Peasants' revolt in Palestine]] as constituting the first formative event of the Palestinian people. From 1516 to 1917, Palestine was ruled by the [[Ottoman Empire]] save a decade from the 1830s to the 1840s when an Egyptian vassal of the Ottomans, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]], and his son [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]] successfully broke away from Ottoman leadership and, conquering territory spreading from Egypt to as far north as Damascus, asserted their own rule over the area. The so-called [[Peasants' Revolt of 1834 (Palestine)|Peasants' Revolt]] by Palestine's Arabs was precipitated by heavy demands for conscripts. The local leaders and urban notables were unhappy about the loss of traditional privileges, while the peasants were well aware that conscription was little more than a death sentence. Starting in May 1834 the rebels took many cities, among them [[Jerusalem]], [[Hebron]] and [[Nablus]] and Ibrahim Pasha's army was deployed, defeating the last rebels on 4 August in Hebron.<ref name=Kimmerling6>Kimmerling and Migdal, 2003, p. 6–11</ref> [[Benny Morris]] argues that the Arabs in Palestine nevertheless remained part of a larger national [[pan-Arab]] or, alternatively, pan-Islamist movement.<ref>[[Benny Morris]], ''Righteous Victims'', pp.40–42 in the French edition.</ref> [[Walid Khalidi]] argues otherwise, writing that Palestinians in [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] times were "[a]cutely aware of the distinctiveness of Palestinian history ..." and "[a]lthough proud of their Arab heritage and ancestry, the Palestinians considered themselves to be descended not only from Arab conquerors of the seventh century but also from [[indigenous peoples]] who had lived in the country since time immemorial, including the ancient [[Hebrews]] and the [[Canaanites]] before them."<ref name=WKhalidi32>Khalidi, W., 1984, p. 32</ref>

[[File:Palestine 1930.jpg|thumb|A 1930 Palestinian women's protest in [[Jerusalem]] against the British Mandate. The sign reads "No dialogue, no negotiations until termination [of the Mandate]"]]

Zachary J. Foster argued in a 2015 ''Foreign Affairs'' article that "based on hundreds of manuscripts, Islamic court records, books, magazines, and newspapers from the Ottoman period (1516–1918), it seems that the first Arab to use the term "Palestinian" was Farid Georges Kassab, a Beirut-based [[Greek Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox Christian]]." He explained further that Kassab's 1909 book ''Palestine, Hellenism, and Clericalism'' noted in passing that "the Orthodox Palestinian Ottomans call themselves Arabs, and are in fact Arabs," despite describing the Arabic speakers of Palestine as Palestinians throughout the rest of the book."<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/middle-east/2015-03-11/whats-palestinian|title=What's a Palestinian?|first=Zachary J.|last=Foster|date=6 October 2015|website=Foreign Affairs|access-date=29 November 2023|archive-date=15 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015105804/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/middle-east/2015-03-11/whats-palestinian|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Bernard Lewis]] argues it was not as a Palestinian nation that the Arabs of Ottoman Palestine objected to Zionists, since the very concept of such a nation was unknown to the Arabs of the area at the time and did not come into being until very much later. Even the concept of Arab nationalism in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire, "had not reached significant proportions before the outbreak of World War I."<ref name=Lewis/> Tamir Sorek, a [[sociologist]], submits that, "Although a distinct Palestinian identity can be traced back at least to the middle of the nineteenth century (Kimmerling and Migdal 1993; Khalidi 1997b), or even to the seventeenth century (Gerber 1998), it was not until after World War I that a broad range of optional ''political'' affiliations became relevant for the Arabs of Palestine."<ref name=Sorek>{{cite journal|title=The Orange and the Cross in the Crescent|journal=Nations and Nationalism|url=http://plaza.ufl.edu/tsorek/articles/orange.pdf|author=Tamir Sorek|volume=10|issue=3|year=2004|pages=269–291|doi=10.1111/j.1354-5078.2004.00167.x|access-date=29 November 2023|archive-date=5 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505193710/http://plaza.ufl.edu/tsorek/articles/orange.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Israeli historian [[Efraim Karsh]] takes the view that the Palestinian identity did not develop until after the [[Six-Day War|1967 war]] because the Palestinian exodus/expulsion had fractured society so greatly that it was impossible to piece together a national identity. Between 1948 and 1967, the Jordanians and other Arab countries hosting Arab refugees from Palestine/Israel silenced any expression of Palestinian identity and occupied their lands until Israel's conquests of 1967. The formal annexation of the West Bank by Jordan in 1950, and the subsequent granting of its Palestinian residents Jordanian citizenship, further stunted the growth of a Palestinian national identity by integrating them into Jordanian society.<ref>[[Efraim Karsh|Karsh, Efraim]]. ''Arafat's War: The Man and His Battle for Israeli Conquest''. New York: Grove Press, 2003. p. 43. "Upon occupying the West Bank during the 1948 war, [[Abdullah I of Jordan|King Abdallah]] moved quickly to erase all traces of corporate Palestinian identity."</ref>

The idea of a unique Palestinian state distinct from its Arab neighbors was at first rejected by Palestinian representatives. The [[Palestine Arab Congress|First Congress]] of [[Muslim-Christian Associations]] (in [[Jerusalem]], February 1919), which met for the purpose of selecting a Palestinian Arab representative for the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]], adopted the following resolution: "We consider Palestine as part of Arab Syria, as it has never been separated from it at any time. We are connected with it by national, religious, [[natural language|linguistic]], natural, economic and geographical bonds."<ref>{{cite book|title=Palestinian Arab National Movement: From Riots to Rebellion: 1929–1939, vol. 2|author=Yehoshua Porath|publisher=Frank Cass and Co., Ltd|year=1977|pages=81–82|author-link=Yehoshua Porath}}</ref>