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Do not fill this in! === Völkisch nationalism === {{Main|Völkisch nationalism}} {{See also|German Question|German nationalism|Pan-Germanism|Unification of Germany|Völkisch movement}} [[File:Johann Gottlieb Fichte.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], considered one of the fathers of [[German nationalism]]]] Adolf Hitler himself along with other members of the [[Nazi Party|National Socialist German Workers' Party]] (German: ''Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'', NSDAP) in the [[Weimar Republic]] (1918â1933) were greatly influenced by several 19th- and early 20th-century thinkers and proponents of philosophical, onto-epistemic, and theoretical perspectives on [[ecological anthropology]], [[scientific racism]], [[Holism in science|holistic science]], and [[organicism]] regarding the constitution of [[complex systems]] and theorization of organic-racial societies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harrington |first=Anne |year=2021 |title=Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler |chapter=Chapter Six: Life Science, Nazi Wholeness, and the "Machine" in Germany's Midst |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780691218083-009/pdf |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |doi=10.1515/9780691218083-009 |page=175 |isbn=978-0-691-21808-3 |jstor=j.ctv14163kf.11 |s2cid=162490363 |quote=When Hans Shemm in 1935 declared National Socialism to be "politically applied biology," things began to look up, not only for [[Holism in science|holism]], but for the [[life sciences]] in general. After all, if the good National Socialist citizen was now seen as the man or woman who understood and revered what were called "Life's laws," then it seemed clear that the life scientists had a major role to play in defining a National Socialist educational program that would transmit the essence of these laws to every family in every village in the country. [...] So much seemed familiar: the calls among the [[Nazi Party|National Socialists]] to return to authentic "German" values and "ways of knowing," to "overcome" the materialism and mechanism of the "West" and the "Jewish-international lie" of scientific objectivity; the use of traditional ''volkisch'' tropes that spoke of the [[German people]] (''Volk'') as a mystical, pseudobiological whole and the state as an "organism" in which the individual was subsumed in the whole ("You are nothing, your Volk is everything"); the condemnation of [[Jews]] as an alien force representing chaos, mechanism, and inauthenticity. [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] himself had even used the stock imagery of conservative holism in ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' when he spoke of the democratic state as "a dead mechanism which only lays claim to existence for its own sake" and contrasted this with his vision of statehood for Germany in which "there must be formed a living organism with the exclusive aim of serving a higher idea."}}</ref><ref name="Deichmann 2020">{{cite journal |last=Deichmann |first=Ute |date=2020 |title=Science and political ideology: The example of Nazi Germany |url=https://www.redalyc.org/journal/5117/511767145001/html/ |journal=MĂštode Science Studies Journal |publisher=[[Universitat de ValĂšncia]] |volume=10 |issue=Science and Nazism. The unconfessed collaboration of scientists with National Socialism |pages=129â137 |doi=10.7203/metode.10.13657 |issn=2174-9221 |s2cid=203335127 |quote=Although in their basic framework [[Nazi racial theories|Nazi anti-Semitic and racist ideology]] and [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|policies]] were not grounded in science, scientists not only supported them in various ways, but also took advantage of them, for example by using the new possibilities of unethical experimentation in humans that these ideologies provided. Scientistsâ complicity with Nazi ideology and politics does, however, not mean that all sciences in [[Nazi Germany]] were ideologically tainted. I argue, rather, that despite the fact that some areas of science continued at high levels, science in Nazi Germany was most negatively affected not by the imposition of Nazi ideology on the conduct of science but by the enactment of legal measures that ensured the [[Racial segregation#Nazi Germany|expulsion of Jewish scientists]]. The [[anti-Semitism]] of young faculty and students was particularly virulent. Moreover, I show that scientists supported Nazi ideologies and policies not only through so-called reductionist science such as [[Nazi eugenics|eugenics and race-hygiene]], but also by promoting organicist and holistic ideologies of the racial state. [...] The ideology of leading Nazi party ideologues was strongly influenced by the [[Völkisch movement|Volkish movement]] which, in the wake of the writings of philosopher [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]] and other nineteenth century authors, promoted the idea of ''Volk'' (people) as an organic unity. They did not base their virulent anti-Semitism and racism on anthropological concepts.|doi-access=free |hdl=10550/89369 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Anker |first=Peder |year=2021 |title=Imperial Ecology: Environmental Order in the British Empire, 1895â1945 |chapter=The Politics of Holism, Ecology, and Human Rights |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/9780674020221-008/pdf |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] and [[London]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |doi=10.4159/9780674020221-008 |page=157 |isbn=978-0-674-02022-1 |s2cid=142173094 |quote=The paradoxical character of the politics of holism is the theme of this chapter, which focuses on the mutually shaping relationship between [[John William Bews]], [[J. F. V. Phillips|John Phillips]], and the [[White South Africans|South African]] politician [[Jan Christian Smuts]]. Smuts was a promoter of international peace and understanding through the League of Nations, but also a defender of [[Racial discrimination|racial suppression]] and [[white supremacy]] in his own country. His politics, I will argue, were fully consistent with his holistic philosophy of science. Smuts was guided by the efforts of ecologists such as Bews and Phillips, who provided him with a day-to-day update of the latest advances in scientific knowledge of natural laws governing ''[[Homo sapiens]]''. A substantial part of this chapter will thus return to their research on human ecology to explore the mutual field of inspiration linking them and Smuts. Two aspects of this human ecological research were particularly important: the human gradualism or ecological âsuccessionâ of human personalities researched by Bews, and the concept of an ecological biotic community explored by Phillips. Smuts transformed this research into a policy of racial gradualism that respected local ways of life in different (biotic) communities, a policy he tried to morally sanctify and promote as author of the famous [[Preamble to the United Nations Charter|1945 Preamble of the United Nation Charter]] about human rights.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Scheid |author-first=Volker |date=June 2016 |chapter=Chapter 3: Holism, Chinese Medicine, and Systems Ideologies: Rewriting the Past to Imagine the Future |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK379258/ |editor1-last=Whitehead |editor1-first=A. |editor2-last=Woods |editor2-first=A. |editor3-last=Atkinson |editor3-first=S. |editor4-last=Macnaughton |editor4-first=J. |editor5-last=Richards |editor5-first=J. |title=The Edinburgh Companion to the Critical Medical Humanities |volume=1 |location=[[Edinburgh]] |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |doi=10.3366/edinburgh/9781474400046.003.0003 |isbn=978-1-4744-0004-6 |id=Bookshelf ID:NBK379258 |s2cid=13333626 |url=https://www.doabooks.org/doab?func=fulltext&uiLanguage=en&rid=27082 |via=[[NCBI]] |quote='''Common Roots: Holism Before and During the Interwar Years''': This chapter cannot explore in detail the complex entanglements between these different notions of holism, or how they reflect Germany's troubled path towards modernity. My starting point, instead, is the [[Interwar period|interwar years]]. By then, holism had become an important resource for people across Europe, the US and beyondâbut once again specifically in Germanyâfor dealing with what [[Max Weber]], in 1918, had famously analysed as a widely felt [[disenchantment]] with the [[Modern era|modern world]]. The very word âholismâ (as opposed to ideas or practices designated as such today), as well as related words like âemergenceâ or âorganicismâ, date from this time. It was coined in 1926 by Jan Smuts to describe a perceived tendency of evolutionary processes towards the formation of wholes, granting these wholes a special onto-epistemic significance that parts lack. This was cultural holism now underpinned by evolutionary science and deployed by Smuts not only as a tool for grasping the coming into being of the world but also as an ideological justification for the development of [[Apartheid]] in [[South Africa]]. In [[Weimar Germany]] and then [[Nazi Germany|under Nazism]], holistic science became a mainstream academic endeavour, once more intermingling cultural politics and serious scientific research. Holistic perspectives also became popular in the interwar years among academics and the wider public throughout the UK and US. In France, it was associated with [[Vitalism|vitalist philosophies]] and the emergence of neo-Hippocratic thinking in medicine, manifesting the unease many people felt about the shifts that biomedicine was undergoing at the time.}}</ref> In particular, one of the most significant ideological influences on the Nazis was the 19th-century [[German nationalism|German nationalist]] philosopher [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], whose works had served as an inspiration to Hitler and other Nazi Party members, and whose ideas were implemented among the philosophical and ideological foundations of Nazi-oriented [[Völkisch nationalism|''Völkisch'' nationalism]].<ref name="Deichmann 2020"/> Fichte's works served as an inspiration to Hitler and other Nazi Party members, including [[Dietrich Eckart]] and [[Arnold Fanck]].<ref name="Deichmann 2020"/>{{sfn|Ryback|2010|pp=129â130}} In ''Speeches to the German Nation'' (1808), written amid the [[First French Empire]]'s occupation of Berlin during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], Fichte called for a German national revolution against the [[French Imperial Army (1804â1815)|French Imperial Army]] occupiers, making passionate public speeches, arming his students for battle against the French and stressing the need for action by the German nation so it could free itself.{{sfn|Ryback|2010|p=129}} Fichte's German nationalism was populist and opposed to traditional elites, spoke of the need for a "People's War" (''Volkskrieg'') and put forth concepts similar to those which the Nazis adopted.{{sfn|Ryback|2010|p=129}} Fichte promoted German [[exceptionalism]] and stressed the need for the German nation to purify itself (including purging the [[German language]] of French words, a policy that the Nazis undertook upon their rise to power).{{sfn|Ryback|2010|p=129}} Another important figure in pre-Nazi ''völkisch'' thinking was [[Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl]], whose workâ''Land und Leute'' (''Land and People'', written between 1857 and 1863)âcollectively tied the organic German Volk to its native landscape and nature, a pairing which stood in stark opposition to the mechanical and materialistic civilisation which was then developing as a result of [[industrialisation]].<ref>George L. Mosse, ''The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich'' (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964), pp. 19â23.</ref> Geographers [[Friedrich Ratzel]] and [[Karl Haushofer]] borrowed from Riehl's work as did Nazi ideologues Alfred Rosenberg and [[Paul Schultze-Naumburg]], both of whom employed some of Riehl's philosophy in arguing that "each nation-state was an organism that required a particular living space in order to survive".<ref>Thomas Lekan and Thomas Zeller, "Introduction: The Landscape of German Environmental History", in ''Germany's Nature: Cultural Landscapes and Environmental History'', edited by Thomas Lekan and Thomas Zeller (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005), p. 3.</ref> Riehl's influence is overtly discernible in the ''[[Blut und Boden]]'' (''Blood and Soil'') philosophy introduced by [[Oswald Spengler]], which the Nazi agriculturalist Walther DarrĂ© and other prominent Nazis adopted.<ref>The Nazi concept of ''[[Lebensraum]]'' has connections with this idea, with German farmers being rooted to their soil, needing more of it for the expansion of the German Volkâwhereas the Jew is precisely the opposite, nomadic and urban by nature. See: Roderick Stackelberg, ''The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany'' (New York: Routledge, 2007), p. 259.</ref><ref>Additional evidence of Riehl's legacy can be seen in the Riehl Prize, ''Die Volkskunde als Wissenschaft'' (Folklore as Science) which was awarded in 1935 by the Nazis. See: George L. Mosse, ''The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich'' (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964), p. 23. Applicants for the Riehl prize had stipulations that included only being of Aryan blood, and no evidence of membership in any Marxist parties or any organisation that stood against National Socialism. See: Hermann Stroback, "Folklore and Fascism before and around 1933," in ''The Nazification of an Academic Discipline: Folklore in the Third Reich'', edited by James R Dow and Hannjost Lixfeld (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), pp. 62â63.</ref> ''Völkisch'' nationalism denounced soulless [[materialism]], [[individualism]] and [[secularised]] [[Urban area|urban]] industrial society, while advocating a "superior" society based on ethnic German "folk" culture and German "blood".<ref name="encyclopedia7" /> It denounced foreigners and foreign ideas and declared that Jews, [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]] and others were "traitors to the nation" and unworthy of inclusion.<ref name="constructing"/> ''Völkisch'' nationalism saw the world in terms of [[natural law]] and [[romanticism]] and it viewed societies as organic, extolling the virtues of [[rural]] life, condemning the neglect of tradition and the decay of morals, denounced the destruction of the natural environment and condemned "cosmopolitan" cultures such as Jews and Romani.<ref name="Jonathan Olsen 1999, p. 62"/> The first party that attempted to combine nationalism and socialism was the [[German Workers' Party (Austria-Hungary)|(Austria-Hungary) German Workers' Party]], which predominantly aimed to solve the conflict between the Austrian Germans and the Czechs in the multi-ethnic [[Austrian Empire]], then part of [[Austria-Hungary]].<ref>Andrew Gladding Whiteside, Austrian National Socialism before 1918, (1962), pp. 1â3</ref> In 1896 the German politician Friedrich Naumann formed the National-Social Association which aimed to combine German nationalism and a non-Marxist form of socialism together; the attempt turned out to be futile and the idea of linking nationalism with socialism quickly became equated with antisemites, extreme German nationalists and the ''völkisch'' movement in general.{{sfn|Kershaw|1999|p=135}} [[File:VonSchoenerer.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Georg Ritter von Schönerer]], a major exponent of Pan-Germanism in Austria]] During the era of the [[German Empire]], ''völkisch'' nationalism was overshadowed by both Prussian patriotism and the federalist tradition of its various component states.<ref name="Nina Witoszek 2002. pp. 89-90"/> The events of World War I, including the end of the Prussian monarchy in Germany, resulted in a surge of revolutionary ''völkisch'' nationalism.<ref name="witoszek"/> The Nazis supported such revolutionary ''völkisch'' nationalist policies<ref name="Nina Witoszek 2002. pp. 89-90"/> and they claimed that their ideology was influenced by the leadership and policies of [[Chancellor of Germany|German Chancellor]] [[Otto von Bismarck]], who was instrumental in founding the German Empire.{{sfn|Gerwarth|2007|p=150}} The Nazis declared that they were dedicated to continuing the process of creating a unified German [[nation state]] that Bismarck had begun and desired to achieve.{{sfn|Gerwarth|2007|p=149}} While Hitler was supportive of Bismarck's creation of the German Empire, he was critical of Bismarck's moderate domestic policies.{{sfn|Gerwarth|2007|p=54}} On the issue of Bismarck's support of a ''[[Kleindeutschland]]'' ("Lesser Germany", excluding Austria) versus the Pan-German ''[[German question#Later influence|GroĂdeutschland]]'' ("Greater Germany") which the Nazis advocated, Hitler stated that Bismarck's attainment of ''Kleindeutschland'' was the "highest achievement" Bismarck could have achieved "within the limits possible at that time".{{sfn|Gerwarth|2007|pp=54, 131}} In ''Mein Kampf'', Hitler presented himself as a "second Bismarck".{{sfn|Gerwarth|2007|p=131}} During his youth in Austria, Hitler was politically influenced by Austrian Pan-Germanist proponent [[Georg Ritter von Schönerer]], who advocated radical [[German nationalism in Austria|German nationalism]], antisemitism, [[anti-Catholicism]], [[anti-Slavic sentiment]] and anti-Habsburg views.<ref name="nicholls236237"/> From von Schönerer and his followers, Hitler adopted for the Nazi movement the ''Heil'' greeting, the ''FĂŒhrer'' title and the model of absolute party leadership.<ref name="nicholls236237"/> Hitler was also impressed by the [[Populism|populist]] antisemitism and the anti-liberal bourgeois agitation of [[Karl Lueger]], who as the mayor of Vienna during Hitler's time in the city used a rabble-rousing style of oratory that appealed to the wider masses.<ref name="nicholls159160"/> Unlike von Schönerer, Lueger was not a German nationalist and instead was a pro-Catholic Habsburg supporter and only used German nationalist notions occasionally for his own agenda.<ref name="nicholls159160"/> Although Hitler praised both Lueger and Schönerer, he criticised the former for not applying a racial doctrine against the Jews and Slavs.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brigitte Hamann|title=Hitler's Vienna: A Portrait of the Tyrant as a Young Man|year=2010|publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks|isbn=978-1-84885-277-8|page=302}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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