Mosaic

===Christian mosaics===

====Early Christian art====
{{Main|Late Antique and medieval mosaics in Italy}}
[[File:Mosaico di cristo in trono tra gli apostoli e le ss. prudenziana e prassede, 410 dc ca. 06.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Detail of a [[Paleochristian]] mosaic from the basilica of [[Santa Pudenziana]] in Rome, c. 410 AD, depicting Saint [[Pudentiana]]]]
With the building of Christian [[basilica]]s in the late 4th century, wall and ceiling mosaics were adopted for Christian uses. The earliest examples of Christian basilicas have not survived, but the mosaics of [[Santa Constanza]] and [[Santa Pudenziana]], both from the 4th century, still exist. The winemaking putti in the [[ambulatory]] of Santa Constanza still follow the classical tradition in that they represent the feast of [[Bacchus]], which symbolizes transformation or change, and are thus appropriate for a mausoleum, the original function of this building. In another great Constantinian basilica, the [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]] the original mosaic floor with typical Roman geometric motifs is partially preserved. The so-called [[Tomb of the Julii]], near the crypt beneath [[St Peter's Basilica]], is a 4th-century vaulted tomb with wall and ceiling mosaics that are given Christian interpretations. The [[Arch of Galerius and Rotunda|Rotunda of Galerius]] in [[Thessaloniki]], converted into a Christian church during the course of the 4th century, was embellished with very high artistic quality mosaics. Only fragments survive of the original decoration, especially a band depicting saints with hands raised in prayer, in front of complex architectural fantasies.

In the following century [[Ravenna]], the capital of the [[Western Roman Empire]], became the center of late Roman mosaic art (see details in Ravenna section). [[Milan]] also served as the capital of the western empire in the 4th century. In the [[St Aquilinus]] Chapel of the [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Milan|Basilica of San Lorenzo]], mosaics executed in the late 4th and early 5th centuries depict Christ with the Apostles and the Abduction of [[Elijah]]; these mosaics are outstanding for their bright colors, naturalism and adherence to the classical canons of order and proportion. The surviving apse mosaic of the [[Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio]], which shows Christ enthroned between Saint Gervasius and Saint Protasius and angels before a golden background date back to the 5th and to the 8th century, although it was restored many times later. The baptistery of the basilica, which was demolished in the 15th century, had a vault covered with gold-leaf tesserae, large quantities of which were found when the site was excavated. In the small shrine of San Vittore in ciel d'oro, now a chapel of Sant'Ambrogio, every surface is covered with mosaics from the second half of the 5th century. Saint Victor is depicted in the center of the golden dome, while figures of saints are shown on the walls before a blue background. The low spandrels give space for the symbols of the four Evangelists.

[[Albenga|Albingaunum]] was the main Roman port of [[Liguria]]. The octagonal baptistery of the town was decorated in the 5th century with high quality blue and white mosaics representing the Apostles. The surviving remains are somewhat fragmented. [[Massilia]] remained a thriving port and a Christian spiritual center in Southern Gaul where favourable societal and economic conditions ensured the survival of mosaic art in the 5th and 6th centuries. The large baptistery, once the grandest building of its kind in Western Europe, had a geometric floor mosaic which is only known from 19th century descriptions. Other parts of the episcopal complex were also decorated with mosaics as new finds, that were unearthed in the 2000s, attest. The funerary [[Abbey of St. Victor, Marseille|basilica of Saint Victor]], built in a quarry outside the walls, was decorated with mosaics but only a small fragment with blue and green scrolls survived on the intrados of an arch (the basilica was later buried under a medieval abbey).

A mosaic pavement depicting humans, animals and plants from the original 4th-century cathedral of [[Aquileia]] has survived in the later medieval church. This mosaic adopts pagan motifs such as the Nilotic scene, but behind the traditional naturalistic content is Christian symbolism such as the [[ichthys]]. The 6th-century early Christian basilicas of Sant' Eufemia [[:it:Basilica di Sant'Eufemia (Grado)]] and Santa Maria delle Grazie in [[Grado, Italy|Grado]] also have mosaic floors.{{sfn|Rentetzi|2008}}

====Ravenna====
[[File:"The good Shepherd" mosaic - Mausoleum of Galla Placidia.jpg|thumb|[[The Good Shepherd (Christianity)|The Good Shepherd]] mosaic in the [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia]], [[Ravenna]]]]
[[File:Mosaic of Justinianus I - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna).jpg|thumb|upright|Mosaic of [[Justinian I]] in [[Basilica of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]]]]
In the 5th-century [[Ravenna]], the capital of the [[Western Roman Empire]], became the center of late Roman mosaic art. The [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia]] was decorated with mosaics of high artistic quality in 425–430. The vaults of the small, cross-shaped structure are clad with mosaics on blue background. The central motif above the crossing is a golden cross in the middle of the starry sky. Another great building established by [[Galla Placidia]] was the church of [[San Giovanni Evangelista, Ravenna|San Giovanni Evangelista]]. She erected it in fulfillment of a vow that she made having escaped from a deadly storm in 425 on the sea voyage from Constantinople to Ravenna. The mosaics depicted the storm, portraits of members of the western and eastern imperial family and the bishop of Ravenna, [[Peter Chrysologus]]. They are known only from Renaissance sources because almost all were destroyed in 1747.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Ravenna|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12662b.htm|encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]|access-date=28 November 2012}}</ref>

[[Ostrogoths]] kept alive the tradition in the 6th century, as the mosaics of the [[Arian Baptistry]], [[Baptistry of Neon]], [[Archbishop's Chapel, Ravenna|Archbishop's Chapel]], and the earlier phase mosaics in the [[Basilica of San Vitale]] and [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo]] testify.

After 539 Ravenna was reconquered by the Romans in the form of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] (Byzantine Empire) and became the seat of the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]]. The greatest development of Christian mosaics unfolded in the second half of the 6th century. Outstanding examples of Byzantine mosaic art are the later phase mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. The mosaic depicting Emperor Saint [[Justinian I]] and [[Theodora (6th century)|Empress Theodora]] in the Basilica of San Vitale were executed shortly after the Byzantine conquest. The mosaics of the [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe]] were made around 549. The anti-Arian theme is obvious in the apse mosaic of [[San Michele in Affricisco]], executed in 545–547 (largely destroyed; the remains in [[Berlin]]).

The last example of Byzantine mosaics in Ravenna was commissioned by bishop Reparatus between 673 and 79 in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. The mosaic panel in the apse showing the bishop with Emperor [[Constantine IV]] is obviously an imitation of the Justinian panel in San Vitale.

====Butrint====
The mosaic pavement of the Vrina Plain basilica of [[Butrint]], [[Albania]] appear to pre-date that of the Baptistery by almost a generation, dating to the last quarter of the 5th or the first years of the 6th century. The mosaic displays a variety of motifs including sea-creatures, birds, terrestrial beasts, fruits, flowers, trees and abstracts – designed to depict a terrestrial paradise of God's creation. Superimposed on this scheme are two large tablets, tabulae ansatae, carrying inscriptions. A variety of fish, a crab, a lobster, shrimps, mushrooms, flowers, a stag and two cruciform designs surround the smaller of the two inscriptions, which reads: In fulfilment of the vow (prayer) of those whose names God knows. This anonymous dedicatory inscription is a public demonstration of the benefactors' humility and an acknowledgement of God's omniscience.

The abundant variety of natural life depicted in the Butrint mosaics celebrates the richness of God's creation; some elements also have specific connotations. The [[kantharos]] vase and vine refer to the [[eucharist]], the symbol of the sacrifice of Christ leading to salvation. Peacocks are symbols of paradise and resurrection; shown eating or drinking from the vase they indicate the route to eternal life. Deer or stags were commonly used as images of the faithful aspiring to Christ: "As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after thee, O God." Water-birds and fish and other sea-creatures can indicate baptism as well as the members of the Church who are christened.

====Late Antique and Early Medieval Rome====
{{See also|Late Antique and medieval mosaics in Italy}}
[[File:RomaSantaMariaMaggioreArcoTrionfaleDxRegistro4.jpg|thumb|5th century mosaic in the triumphal arch of [[Santa Maria Maggiore]], Rome]]

Christian mosaic art also flourished in Rome, gradually declining as conditions became more difficult in the [[Early Middle Ages]]. 5th century mosaics can be found over the triumphal arch and in the nave of the basilica of [[Santa Maria Maggiore]]. The 27 surviving panels of the nave are the most important mosaic cycle in Rome of this period. Two other important 5th century mosaics are lost but we know them from 17th-century drawings. In the apse mosaic of [[Sant'Agata dei Goti]] (462–472, destroyed in 1589) Christ was seated on a globe with the twelve Apostles flanking him, six on either side. At [[Sant'Andrea in Catabarbara]] (468–483, destroyed in 1686) Christ appeared in the center, flanked on either side by three Apostles. Four streams flowed from the little mountain supporting Christ. The original 5th-century apse mosaic of the [[Santa Sabina]] was replaced by a very similar fresco by [[Taddeo Zuccari]] in 1559. The composition probably remained unchanged: Christ flanked by male and female saints, seated on a hill while lambs drinking from a stream at its feet. All three mosaics had a similar iconography.

6th-century pieces are rare in Rome but the mosaics inside the triumphal arch of the basilica of [[San Lorenzo fuori le mura]] belong to this era. The ''Chapel of Ss. Primo e Feliciano'' in [[Santo Stefano Rotondo]] has very interesting and rare mosaics from the 7th century. This chapel was built by [[Pope Theodore I]] as a family burial place.

In the 7th–9th centuries Rome fell under the influence of Byzantine art, noticeable on the mosaics of [[Santa Prassede]], [[Santa Maria in Domnica]], [[Sant'Agnese fuori le Mura]], [[Santa Cecilia in Trastevere]], [[Santi Nereo e Achilleo]] and the San Venanzio chapel of [[San Giovanni in Laterano]]. The great dining hall of [[Pope Leo III]] in the [[Lateran Palace]] was also decorated with mosaics. They were all destroyed later except for one example, the so-called [[Triclinio Leoniano]] of which a copy was made in the 18th century. Another great work of Pope Leo, the apse mosaic of [[Santa Susanna]], depicted Christ with the Pope and [[Charlemagne]] on one side, and SS. Susanna and Felicity on the other. It was plastered over during a renovation in 1585. Pope [[Paschal I]] (817–824) embellished the church of [[Santo Stefano del Cacco]] with an apsidal mosaic which depicted the pope with a model of the church (destroyed in 1607).

The fragment of an 8th-century mosaic, the [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]] is one of the very rare remaining pieces of the medieval decoration of [[Old St. Peter's Basilica]], demolished in the late 16th century. The precious fragment is kept in the sacristy of [[Santa Maria in Cosmedin]]. It proves the high artistic quality of the destroyed St. Peter's mosaics.

====Byzantine mosaics====
{{main|Byzantine mosaics}}
{{see also|Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East}}
[[File:Greatpalacemosaic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15<!--size for low image-->|The so-called Gothic chieftain, from the Mosaic Peristyle of the Great Palace of Constantinople]]

Mosaics were more central to Byzantine culture than to that of Western Europe. Byzantine church interiors were generally covered with golden mosaics. Mosaic art flourished in the [[Byzantine Empire]] from the 6th to the 15th centuries. The majority of Byzantine mosaics were destroyed without trace during wars and conquests, but the surviving remains still form a fine collection.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lowden |first=John |title=Early Christian and Byzantine art |publisher=Phaidon |year=1997 |at=(whole book)}}</ref>

The great buildings of [[Justinian I|Emperor Justinian]] like the [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]], the [[Nea Ekklesia of the Theotokos|Nea Church]] in [[Jerusalem]] and the rebuilt [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]] were certainly embellished with mosaics but none of these survived.

[[File:St George as patron of two children. Mosaic, church of St Demetrios in Thessaloniki.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A pre-[[Iconoclastic]] depiction of St. Demetrios at the Hagios Demetrios Basilica in Thessaloniki.]]
Important fragments survived from the mosaic floor of the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]] which was commissioned during [[Justinian]]'s reign. The figures, animals, plants all are entirely classical but they are scattered before a plain background. The portrait of a moustached man, probably a Gothic chieftain, is considered the most important surviving mosaic of the Justinianian age. The so-called ''small sekreton'' of the palace was built during [[Justin II]]'s reign around 565–577. Some fragments survive from the mosaics of this vaulted room. The vine scroll motifs are very similar to those in the Santa Constanza and they still closely follow the Classical tradition. There are remains of floral decoration in the [[Church of the Acheiropoietos]] in [[Thessaloniki]] (5th–6th centuries).

[[File:Eufrazijeva bazilika - ulazni natpis.jpg|thumb|Byzantine mosaic above the entrance portal of the [[Euphrasian Basilica]] in [[Poreč]], [[Croatia]] (6th century)]]
In the 6th century, [[Ravenna]], the capital of Byzantine Italy, became the center of mosaic making. [[Istria]] also boasts some important examples from this era. The [[Euphrasian Basilica]] in [[Poreč|Parentium]] was built in the middle of the 6th century and decorated with mosaics depicting the [[Theotokos]] flanked by angels and saints.

Fragments remain from the mosaics of the [[Church of Santa Maria Formosa]] in [[Pula|Pola]]. These pieces were made during the 6th century by artists from Constantinople. Their pure Byzantine style is different from the contemporary Ravennate mosaics.

Very few early Byzantine mosaics survived the [[Iconoclasm|Iconoclastic]] destruction of the 8th century. Among the rare examples are the 6th-century ''Christ in majesty'' (or ''Ezekiel's Vision'') mosaic in the apse of the [[Church of Hosios David]] in [[Thessaloniki]] that was hidden behind mortar during those dangerous times. Nine mosaic panels in the [[Hagios Demetrios|Hagios Demetrios Church]], which were made between 634 and 730, also escaped destruction. Unusually almost all represent [[Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki]], often with suppliants before him. This iconoclasm was almost certainly because of nearby Muslims' beliefs.

[[File:Peter in Chora.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Saint Peter]] mosaic from the [[Chora Church]]]]
In the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|Iconoclastic era]], figural mosaics were also condemned as idolatry. The Iconoclastic churches were embellished with plain gold mosaics with only one great cross in the apse like the [[Hagia Irene]] in Constantinople (after 740). There were similar crosses in the apses of the [[Hagia Sophia (Thessaloniki)|Hagia Sophia Church]] in Thessaloniki and in the [[Church of the Dormition, Nicaea|Church of the Dormition]] in [[Iznik|Nicaea]]. The crosses were substituted with the image of the [[Theotokos]] in both churches after the victory of the [[Iconodules]] (787–797 and in 8th–9th centuries respectively, the Dormition church was totally destroyed in 1922).

A similar Theotokos image flanked by two archangels were made for the [[Hagia Sophia]] in Constantinople in 867. The dedication inscription says: "The images which the impostors had cast down here pious emperors have again set up." In the 870s the so-called ''large sekreton'' of the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]] was decorated with the images of the four great iconodule patriarchs.

The post-Iconoclastic era was the heyday of Byzantine art with the most beautiful mosaics executed. The mosaics of the [[Macedonian Renaissance]] (867–1056) carefully mingled traditionalism with innovation. Constantinopolitan mosaics of this age followed the decoration scheme first used in Emperor [[Basil I]]'s [[Nea Ekklesia]]. Not only this prototype was later totally destroyed but each surviving composition is battered so it is necessary to move from church to church to reconstruct the system.

An interesting set of Macedonian-era mosaics make up the decoration of the [[Hosios Loukas]] Monastery. In the narthex there is the Crucifixion, the Pantokrator and the Anastasis above the doors, while in the church the Theotokos (apse), Pentecost, scenes from Christ's life and ermit St Loukas (all executed before 1048). The scenes are treated with a minimum of detail and the panels are dominated with the gold setting.

[[File:Meister der Nea-Moni-Kirche in Chios 002.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Detail of mosaic from [[Nea Moni]] Monastery]]
The [[Nea Moni]] Monastery on [[Chios]] was established by [[Constantine IX Monomachos|Constantine Monomachos]] in 1043–1056. The exceptional mosaic decoration of the dome showing probably the nine orders of the angels was destroyed in 1822 but other panels survived (Theotokos with raised hands, four evangelists with seraphim, scenes from Christ's life and an interesting Anastasis where King Salomon bears resemblance to Constantine Monomachos). In comparison with Osios Loukas Nea Moni mosaics contain more figures, detail, landscape and setting.

Another great undertaking by Constantine Monomachos was the restoration of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in [[Jerusalem]] between 1042 and 1048. Nothing survived of the mosaics which covered the walls and the dome of the edifice but the Russian abbot Daniel, who visited Jerusalem in 1106–1107 left a description: "Lively mosaics of the holy prophets are under the ceiling, over the tribune. The altar is surmounted by a mosaic image of Christ. In the main altar one can see the mosaic of the Exaltation of Adam. In the apse the Ascension of Christ. The Annunciation occupies the two pillars next to the altar."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.christusrex.com/www1/jhs/TSspdest.html |title=The Holy Sepulchre – The great destruction of 1009<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=19 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019105514/http://www.christusrex.com/www1/jhs/TSspdest.html |archive-date=19 October 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[Daphni Monastery]] houses the best preserved complex of mosaics from the early Comnenan period (ca. 1100) when the austere and hieratic manner typical for the [[Macedonian dynasty|Macedonian epoch]] and represented by the awesome [[Christ Pantocrator]] image inside the dome, was metamorphosing into a more intimate and delicate style, of which ''The Angel before St Joachim'' — with its pastoral backdrop, harmonious gestures and pensive lyricism – is considered a superb example.

The 9th- and 10th-century mosaics of the [[Hagia Sophia]] in Constantinople are truly classical Byzantine artworks. The north and south tympana beneath the dome was decorated with figures of prophets, saints and patriarchs. Above the principal door from the narthex we can see an ''Emperor kneeling before Christ'' (late 9th or early 10th century). Above the door from the southwest vestibule to the narthex another mosaic shows the ''Theotokos with Justinian and Constantine''. [[Justinian I]] is offering the model of the church to Mary while [[Constantine I|Constantine]] is holding a model of the city in his hand. Both emperors are beardless – this is an example for conscious archaization as contemporary Byzantine rulers were bearded. A mosaic panel on the gallery shows ''Christ with [[Constantine IX Monomachos|Constantine Monomachos]] and [[Zoe (empress)|Empress Zoe]]'' (1042–1055). The emperor gives a bulging [[money sack]] to Christ as a donation for the church.

The dome of the [[Hagia Sophia (Thessaloniki)|Hagia Sophia Church]] in Thessaloniki is decorated with an ''Ascension'' mosaic (c. 885). The composition resembles the great baptistries in [[Ravenna]], with apostles standing between palms and Christ in the middle. The scheme is somewhat unusual as the standard post-Iconoclastic formula for domes contained only the image of the [[Christ Pantocrator|Pantokrator]].

[[File:Christ Pantocrator mosaic from Hagia Sophia 2240 x 3109 pixels 2.5 MB.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Mosaic of [[Christ Pantocrator]] from [[Hagia Sophia]] from the ''Deesis'' mosaic.]]
There are very few existing mosaics from the [[Komnenos|Komnenian period]] but this paucity must be due to accidents of survival and gives a misleading impression. The only surviving 12th-century mosaic work in [[Constantinople]] is a panel in Hagia Sophia depicting Emperor [[John II Komnenos|John II]] and Empress [[Piroska of Hungary|Eirene]] with the [[Theotokos]] (1122–34). The empress with her long braided hair and rosy cheeks is especially capturing. It must be a lifelike portrayal because Eirene was really a redhead as her original Hungarian name, ''Piroska'' shows. The adjacent portrait of Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] on a pier (from 1122) is similarly personal. The imperial mausoleum of the [[Komnenos]] dynasty, the [[Zeyrek Camii|Pantokrator Monastery]] was certainly decorated with great mosaics but these were later destroyed. The lack of Komnenian mosaics outside the capital is even more apparent. There is only a "Communion of the Apostles" in the apse of the cathedral of [[Serres, Greece|Serres]].

A striking technical innovation of the Komnenian period was the production of very precious, miniature mosaic icons. In these icons the small tesserae (with sides of 1&nbsp;mm or less) were set on wax or resin on a wooden panel. These products of extraordinary craftmanship were intended for private devotion. The [[Louvre Transfiguration]] is a very fine example from the late 12th century. The miniature mosaic of Christ in the Museo Nazionale at [[Florence]] illustrates the more gentle, humanistic conception of Christ which appeared in the 12th century.

[[File:Santa Sofia - Mosaic de Joan II Comnè i la seva esposa, Irene.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|left|A mosaic from the [[Hagia Sophia]] of [[Constantinople]] (modern Istanbul), depicting [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and [[Jesus]], flanked by [[John II Komnenos]] (left) and his wife [[Irene of Hungary]] (right), c. 1118 AD]]
The sack of Constantinople in 1204 caused the decline of mosaic art for the next five decades. After the reconquest of the city by [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] in 1261 the Hagia Sophia was restored and a beautiful new ''[[Deesis]]'' was made on the south gallery. This huge mosaic panel with figures two and a half times lifesize is really overwhelming due to its grand scale and superlative craftsmanship. The Hagia Sophia ''Deesis'' is probably the most famous Byzantine mosaic in Constantinople.

The [[Pammakaristos Church|Pammakaristos Monastery]] was restored by [[Michael Doukas Glabas Tarchaneiotes|Michael Glabas]], an imperial official, in the late 13th century. Only the mosaic decoration of the small burial chapel ([[parekklesion]]) of Glabas survived. This domed chapel was built by his widow, Martha around 1304–08. In the miniature dome the traditional Pantokrator can be seen with twelve prophets beneath. Unusually the apse is decorated with a ''[[Deesis]]'', probably due to the funerary function of the chapel.

The [[Church of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki)|Church of the Holy Apostles]] in [[Thessaloniki]] was built in 1310–14. Although some vandal systematically removed the gold tesserae of the background it can be seen that the Pantokrator and the prophets in the dome follow the traditional Byzantine pattern. Many details are similar to the Pammakaristos mosaics so it is supposed that the same team of mosaicists worked in both buildings. Another building with a related mosaic decoration is the [[Theotokos Paregoritissa Church]] in [[Arta, Greece|Arta]]. The church was established by the Despot of [[Epirus]] in 1294–96. In the dome is the traditional stern Pantokrator, with prophets and cherubim below.

[[File:Chora Church interior March 2008.JPG|thumb|right|Mosaic of Theodore Metochites offering the Chora Church to Christ]]
The greatest mosaic work of the [[Palaeologan renaissance in art]] is the decoration of the [[Chora Church]] in Constantinople. Although the mosaics of the naos have not survived except three panels, the decoration of the exonarthex and the esonarthex constitute the most important full-scale mosaic cycle in Constantinople after the Hagia Sophia. They were executed around 1320 by the command of [[Theodore Metochites]]. The esonarthex has two fluted domes, specially created to provide the ideal setting for the mosaic images of the ancestors of Christ. The southern one is called the Dome of the Pantokrator while the northern one is the Dome of the Theotokos. The most important panel of the esonarthex depicts Theodore Metochites wearing a huge [[turban]], offering the model of the church to Christ. The walls of both narthexes are decorated with mosaic cycles from the life of the Virgin and the life of Christ. These panels show the influence of the Italian [[trecento]] on Byzantine art especially the more natural settings, landscapes, figures.

The last Byzantine mosaic work was created for the Hagia Sophia, Constantinople in the middle of the 14th century. The great eastern arch of the cathedral collapsed in 1346, bringing down the third of the main dome. By 1355 not only the big Pantokrator image was restored but new mosaics were set on the eastern arch depicting the Theotokos, the Baptist and Emperor [[John V Palaiologos]] (discovered only in 1989).

In addition to the large-scale monuments several miniature mosaic icons of outstanding quality was produced for the Palaiologos court and nobles. The loveliest examples from the 14th century are ''Annunciation'' in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] and a mosaic diptych in the Cathedral Treasury of [[Florence]] representing the ''Twelve Feasts of the Church''.

In the troubled years of the 15th century the fatally weakened empire could not afford luxurious mosaics. Churches were decorated with wall-paintings in this era and after the [[Fall of Constantinople|Turkish conquest]].

====Rome in the High Middle Ages====
[[File:Apse mosaic SM Maggiore.jpg|thumb|Apse mosaic in the [[Santa Maria Maggiore]]]]
The last great period of Roman mosaic art was the 12th–13th century when [[Rome]] developed its own distinctive artistic style, free from the strict rules of eastern tradition and with a more realistic portrayal of figures in the space. Well-known works of this period are the floral mosaics of the [[Basilica di San Clemente]], the façade of [[Santa Maria in Trastevere]] and [[San Paolo fuori le Mura]]. The beautiful apse mosaic of Santa Maria in Trastevere (1140) depicts Christ and Mary sitting next to each other on the heavenly throne, the first example of this iconographic scheme. A similar mosaic, the [[Coronation of the Virgin]], decorates the apse of [[Santa Maria Maggiore]]. It is a work of [[Jacopo Torriti]] from 1295. The mosaics of Torriti and [[Jacopo da Camerino]] in the apse of [[San Giovanni in Laterano]] from 1288 to 1294 were thoroughly restored in 1884. The apse mosaic of [[San Crisogono]] is attributed to [[Pietro Cavallini]], the greatest Roman painter of the 13th century. Six scenes from the life of Mary in Santa Maria in Trastevere were also executed by Cavallini in 1290. These mosaics are praised for their realistic portrayal and attempts at perspective. There is an interesting mosaic medallion from 1210 above the gate of the church of [[San Tommaso in Formis]] showing Christ enthroned between a white and a black slave. The church belonged to the Order of the [[Trinitarians]] which was devoted to ransoming Christian slaves.

The great [[Navicella (mosaic)|''Navicella'' mosaic]] (1305–1313) in the atrium of the Old St. Peter's is attributed to [[Giotto di Bondone]]. The giant mosaic, commissioned by Cardinal [[Jacopo Stefaneschi]], was originally situated on the eastern porch of the old basilica and occupied the whole wall above the entrance arcade facing the courtyard. It depicted St. Peter walking on the waters. This extraordinary work was mainly destroyed during the construction of the new St. Peter's in the 17th century. Navicella means "little ship" referring to the large boat which dominated the scene, and whose sail, filled by the storm, loomed over the horizon. Such a natural representation of a seascape was known only from ancient works of art.

====Sicily====
[[File:Chapelle Palatine.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Arabic]] arches and Byzantine mosaics in the [[Cappella Palatina]] of [[Roger II of Sicily]]]]

The heyday of mosaic making in [[Sicily]] was the age of the independent [[Normans|Norman]] kingdom in the 12th century. The Norman kings adopted the Byzantine tradition of mosaic decoration to enhance the somewhat dubious legality of their rule. Greek masters working in Sicily developed their own style, that shows the influence of Western European and Islamic artistic tendencies. Best examples of Sicilian mosaic art are the [[Cappella Palatina]] of [[Roger II of Sicily|Roger II]],<ref>''Some Palatine Aspects of the Cappella Palatina in Palermo'', Slobodan Ćurčić, '''Dumbarton Oaks Papers''', Vol. 41, 139.</ref> the [[Martorana]] church in [[Palermo]] and the cathedrals of [[cathedral of Cefalù|Cefalù]] and [[Monreale]].

The Cappella Palatina clearly shows evidence for blending the eastern and western styles. The dome (1142–42) and the eastern end of the church (1143–1154) were decorated with typical Byzantine mosaics i.e. Pantokrator, angels, scenes from the life of Christ. Even the inscriptions are written in Greek. The narrative scenes of the nave (Old Testament, life of Sts Peter and Paul) are resembling to the mosaics of the Old St. Peter's and St. Paul's Basilica in [[Rome]] (Latin inscriptions, 1154–66).

The Martorana church (decorated around 1143) looked originally even more Byzantine although important parts were later demolished. The dome mosaic is similar to that of the Cappella Palatina, with Christ enthroned in the middle and four bowed, elongated angels. The Greek inscriptions, decorative patterns, and evangelists in the [[squinches]] are obviously executed by the same Greek masters who worked on the Cappella Palatina. The mosaic depicting Roger II of Sicily, dressed in Byzantine imperial robes and receiving the crown by Christ, was originally in the demolished [[narthex]] together with another panel, the [[Theotokos]] with Georgios of Antiochia, the founder of the church.

In [[Cefalù]] (1148) only the high, French Gothic presbytery was covered with mosaics: the [[Christ Pantocrator|Pantokrator]] on the semidome of the apse and [[cherubim]] on the vault. On the walls are Latin and Greek saints, with Greek inscriptions.

[[File:Dedication mosaic - Cathedral of Monreale - Italy 2015 (crop).JPG|thumb|upright|[[Monreale]] mosaics: William II offering the [[Monreale Cathedral]] to the [[Virgin Mary]]]]
The [[Monreale]] mosaics constitute the largest decoration of this kind in Italy, covering 0,75 hectares with at least 100 million glass and stone tesserae. This huge work was executed between 1176 and 1186 by the order of King [[William II of Sicily]]. The iconography of the mosaics in the presbytery is similar to Cefalu while the pictures in the nave are almost the same as the narrative scenes in the Cappella Palatina. The Martorana mosaic of Roger II blessed by Christ was repeated with the figure of King William II instead of his predecessor. Another panel shows the king offering the model of the cathedral to the Theotokos.

The [[Cathedral of Palermo]], rebuilt by Archbishop Walter in the same time (1172–85), was also decorated with mosaics but none of these survived except the 12th-century image of ''Madonna del Tocco'' above the western portal.

The cathedral of [[Messina]], consecrated in 1197, was also decorated with a great mosaic cycle, originally on par with Cefalù and Monreale, but heavily damaged and restored many times later. In the left apse of the same cathedral 14th-century mosaics survived, representing the Madonna and Child between Saints Agata and Lucy, the Archangels Gabriel and Michael and Queens Eleonora and Elisabetta.

Southern Italy was also part of the Norman kingdom but great mosaics did not survive in this area except the fine mosaic pavement of the [[Otranto Cathedral]] from 1166, with mosaics tied into a tree of life, mostly still preserved. The scenes depict biblical characters, warrior kings, medieval beasts, allegories of the months and working activity. Only fragments survived from the original mosaic decoration of [[Amalfi]]'s Norman Cathedral. The mosaic ambos in the churches of [[Ravello]] prove that mosaic art was widespread in Southern Italy during the 11th–13th centuries.

The palaces of the Norman kings were decorated with mosaics depicting animals and landscapes. The secular mosaics are seemingly more Eastern in character than the great religious cycles and show a strong Persian influence. The most notable examples are the ''Sala di Ruggero'' in the [[Palazzo dei Normanni]], [[Palermo]] and the ''Sala della Fontana'' in the [[Zisa, Palermo|Zisa]] summer palace, both from the 12th century.

====Venice====

In parts of [[Italy]], which were under eastern artistic influences, like [[Sicily]] and [[Venice]], mosaic making never went out of fashion in the Middle Ages. The whole interior of the [[St Mark's Basilica]] in Venice is clad with elaborate, golden mosaics. The oldest scenes were executed by Greek masters in the late 11th century but the majority of the mosaics are works of local artists from the 12th–13th centuries. The decoration of the church was finished only in the 16th century. One hundred and ten scenes of mosaics in the atrium of St Mark's were based directly on the miniatures of the [[Cotton Genesis]], a Byzantine manuscript that was brought to Venice after the sack of Constantinople (1204). The mosaics were executed in the 1220s.

Other important Venetian mosaics can be found in the [[Torcello Cathedral|Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta]] in [[Torcello]] from the 12th century, and in the Basilical of Santi Maria e Donato in [[Murano]] with a restored apse mosaic from the 12th century and a beautiful mosaic pavement (1140). The apse of the San Cipriano Church in Murano was decorated with an impressive golden mosaic from the early 13th century showing Christ enthroned with Mary, St John and the two patron saints, Cipriano and Cipriana. When the church was demolished in the 19th century, the mosaic was bought by [[Frederick William IV of Prussia]]. It was reassembled in the [[Church of Peace (Sanssouci)|Friedenskirche]] of [[Potsdam]] in the 1840s.

[[Trieste]] was also an important center of mosaic art. The mosaics in the apse of the [[Cathedral of San Giusto, Trieste|Cathedral of San Giusto]] were laid by master craftsmen from [[Veneto]] in the 12th–13th centuries.

====Medieval Italy====
The monastery of [[Grottaferrata]] founded by Greek [[Basilian monks]] and consecrated by the Pope in 1024 was decorated with [[Italo-Byzantine]] mosaics, some of which survived in the [[narthex]] and the interior. The mosaics on the triumphal [[chancel arch]] portray the Twelve Apostles sitting beside an empty throne, evoking Christ's ascent to Heaven. It is a Byzantine work of the 12th century. There is a beautiful 11th-century Deesis above the main portal.

The Abbot of [[Monte Cassino]], [[Pope Victor III|Desiderius]] sent envoys to [[Constantinople]] some time after 1066 to hire expert Byzantine mosaicists for the decoration of the rebuilt abbey church. According to chronicler [[Leo of Ostia]] the Greek artists decorated the apse, the arch and the vestibule of the basilica. Their work was admired by contemporaries but was totally destroyed in later centuries except two fragments depicting greyhounds (now in the Monte Cassino Museum). "The abbot in his wisdom decided that great number of young monks in the monastery should be thoroughly initiated in these arts" – says the chronicler about the role of the Greeks in the revival of mosaic art in medieval Italy.

[[File:Florenca133b.jpg|thumb|[[Florence Baptistry]]]]
In [[Florence]] a magnificiant mosaic of the [[Last Judgement]] decorates the dome of the [[Florence Baptistery|Baptistery]]. The earliest mosaics, works of art of many unknown Venetian craftsmen (including probably [[Cimabue]]), date from 1225. The covering of the ceiling was probably not completed until the 14th century.

The impressive mosaic of [[Christ in Majesty]], flanked by the Virgin Mary and St. John the Evangelist in the apse of the [[Piazza dei Miracoli|cathedral of Pisa]] was designed by [[Cimabue]] in 1302. It evokes the Monreale mosaics in style. It survived the great fire of 1595 which destroyed most of the medieval interior decoration.

Sometimes not only church interiors but façades were also decorated with mosaics in Italy like in the case of the [[St Mark's Basilica]] in Venice (mainly from the 17th–19th centuries, but the oldest one from 1270 to 1275, "The burial of St Mark in the first basilica"), the [[Duomo di Orvieto|Cathedral of Orvieto]] (golden Gothic mosaics from the 14th century, many times redone) and the [[Basilica di San Frediano]] in [[Lucca]] (huge, striking golden mosaic representing the Ascension of Christ with the apostles below, designed by [[Berlinghiero Berlinghieri]] in the 13th century). The [[Cathedral of Spoleto]] is also decorated on the upper façade with a huge mosaic portraying the ''Blessing Christ'' (signed by one Solsternus from 1207).

====Western and Central Europe====
{{multiple image |direction=vertical |width=220 |align=left
|image1=st.peters.basilica.tesserae.arp.jpg |caption1=A "painting" made from tesserae in [[St.&nbsp;Peter's Basilica]], [[Vatican State]], Italy
|image2=st.peters.basilica.tesserae.closeup.arp.jpg |caption2=Close up of the bottom left corner of the picture above. Click the picture to see the individual [[tessera]]e
}}

Beyond the [[Alps]] the first important example of mosaic art was the decoration of the [[Palatine Chapel in Aachen]], commissioned by [[Charlemagne]]. It was completely destroyed in a fire in 1650. A rare example of surviving Carolingian mosaics is the [[apse]] [[semi-dome]] decoration of the oratory of [[Germigny-des-Prés]] built in 805–806 by [[Theodulf]], [[bishop of Orléans]], a leading figure of the [[Carolingian Renaissance]]. This unique work of art, rediscovered only in the 19th century, had no followers.

Only scant remains prove that mosaics were still used in the Early Middle Ages. The Abbey of Saint-Martial in [[Limoges]], originally an important place of pilgrimage, was totally demolished during the [[French Revolution]] except its crypt which was rediscovered in the 1960s. A mosaic panel was unearthed which was dated to the 9th century. It somewhat incongruously uses cubes of gilded glass and deep green marble, probably taken from antique pavements. This could also be the case with the early 9th century mosaic found under the [[Basilica of Saint-Quentin]] in [[Picardy]], where antique motifs are copied but using only simple colors. The mosaics in the Cathedral of Saint-Jean at [[Lyon]] have been dated to the 11th century because they employ the same non-antique simple colors. More fragments were found on the site of Saint-Croix at [[Poitiers]] which might be from the 6th or 9th century.

Later fresco replaced the more labor-intensive technique of mosaic in Western-Europe, although mosaics were sometimes used as decoration on medieval cathedrals. The Royal Basilica of the Hungarian kings in [[Székesfehérvár]] (Alba Regia) had a mosaic decoration in the apse. It was probably a work of Venetian or Ravennese craftsmen, executed in the first decades of the 11th century. The mosaic was almost totally destroyed together with the basilica in the 17th century. The Golden Gate of the [[St. Vitus Cathedral]] in [[Prague]] got its name from the golden 14th-century mosaic of the [[Last Judgement]] above the portal. It was executed by Venetian craftsmen.

[[File:Germigny Jplm.jpg|thumb|right|Carolingian mosaic in [[Germigny-des-Prés]]]]
The [[Crusaders]] in the [[Holy Land]] also adopted mosaic decoration under local Byzantine influence. During their 12th-century reconstruction of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in [[Jerusalem]] they complemented the existing Byzantine mosaics with new ones. Almost nothing of them survived except the "Ascension of Christ" in the Latin Chapel (now confusingly surrounded by many 20th-century mosaics). More substantial fragments were preserved from the 12th-century mosaic decoration of the [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]]. The mosaics in the nave are arranged in five horizontal bands with the figures of the ancestors of Christ, Councils of the Church and angels. In the apses the Annunciation, the Nativity, Adoration of the Magi and Dormition of the Blessed Virgin can be seen. The program of redecoration of the church was completed in 1169 as a unique collaboration of the Byzantine emperor, the [[king of Jerusalem]] and the Latin Church.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Art and Colonialism: The mosaics of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (1169) and the problem of the ''crusader'' art |author=Lucy-Anne Hunt |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |year=1991 |volume=45 |jstor=1291693 |pages=69–85|doi=10.2307/1291693 }}</ref>

In 2003, the remains of a mosaic pavement were discovered under the ruins of the [[Frumuşeni Mosaics|Bizere Monastery]] near the River [[Mureș River|Mureş]] in present-day [[Romania]]. The panels depict real or fantastic animal, floral, solar and geometric representations. Some archeologists supposed that it was the floor of an Orthodox church, built some time between the 10th and 11th century. Other experts claim that it was part of the later Catholic monastery on the site because it shows the signs of strong Italianate influence. The monastery was situated at that time in the territory of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]].

====Renaissance and Baroque====
Although mosaics went out of fashion and were substituted by frescoes, some of the great Renaissance artists also worked with the old technique. [[Raphael]]'s [[Creation of the World (Raphael)|Creation of the World]] in the dome of the [[Chigi Chapel]] in [[Santa Maria del Popolo]] is a notable example that was executed by a Venetian craftsman, Luigi di Pace.

During the papacy of [[Clement VIII]] (1592–1605), the "Congregazione della Reverenda Fabbrica di San Pietro" was established, providing an independent organisation charged with completing the decorations in the newly built [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. Instead of frescoes the cavernous Basilica was mainly decorated with mosaics. Among the explanations are:
# The old St. Peter's Basilica had been decorated with mosaic, as was common in churches built during the early Christian era; the 17th century followed the tradition to enhance continuity.
# In a church like this with high walls and few windows, mosaics were brighter and reflected more light.
# Mosaics had greater intrinsic longevity than either frescoes or canvases.
# Mosaics had an association with bejeweled decoration, flaunting richness.

The mosaics of St. Peter's often show lively [[Baroque]] compositions based on designs or canvases from like [[Ciro Ferri]], [[Guido Reni]], [[Domenichino]], [[Carlo Maratta]], and many others. [[Raphael]] is represented by a mosaic replica of this last painting, the [[Transfiguration (Raphael)|Transfiguration]]. Many different artists contributed to the 17th- and 18th-century mosaics in St. Peter's, including [[Giovanni Battista Calandra]], [[Fabio Cristofari]] (died 1689), and [[Pietro Paolo Cristofari]] (died 1743).<ref>DiFederico, F. R. (1983), ''The mosaics of Saint Peter's Decorating the New Basilica'', University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, pp. 3–26.</ref> Works of the Fabbrica were often used as papal gifts.

====The Christian East====
{{Main|Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East}}

[[File:Madaba map.jpg|thumb|[[Jerusalem]] on the [[Madaba Map]]]]
The eastern provinces of the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman]] and later the [[Byzantine Empire]]s inherited a strong artistic tradition from [[Late Antiquity]]. Similar to [[Italy]] and [[Constantinople]], churches and important secular buildings in the [[Syria (region)|region of Syria]] and [[Egypt]] were decorated with elaborate mosaic panels between the 5th and 8th centuries. The great majority of these works of art were later destroyed, but archeological excavations unearthed many surviving examples.

The single most important piece of Byzantine Christian mosaic art in the East is the [[Madaba Map]], made between 542 and 570 as the floor of the church of Saint George at [[Madaba]], [[Jordan]]. It was rediscovered in 1894. The Madaba Map is the oldest surviving cartographic depiction of the [[Holy Land]]. It depicts an area from [[Lebanon]] in the north to the [[Nile Delta]] in the south, and from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the west to the [[Arabian Desert|Eastern Desert]]. The largest and most detailed element of the topographic depiction is [[Jerusalem]], at the center of the map. The map is enriched with many naturalistic features, like animals, fishing boats, bridges and palm trees.

One of the earliest examples of [[Dionysus mosaic, Samatya|Byzantine mosaic art]] in the region can be found on [[Mount Nebo (Jordan)|Mount Nebo]], an important place of pilgrimage in the Byzantine era where [[Moses]] died. Among the many 6th-century mosaics in the church complex (discovered after 1933) the most interesting one is located in the baptistery. The intact floor mosaic covers an area of 9&nbsp;×&nbsp;3 m and was laid down in 530. It depicts hunting and pastoral scenes with rich Middle Eastern flora and fauna.
[[File:Nebo05(js).jpg|thumb|left|Mosaic floor from the church on [[Mount Nebo (Jordan)|Mount Nebo]] (baptistery, 530)]]
The Church of Sts. Lot and Procopius was founded in 567 in Nebo village under Mount Nebo (now [[Khirbet Mukhayyat]]). Its floor mosaic depicts everyday activities like grape harvest. Another two spectacular mosaics were discovered in the ruined Church of Preacher John nearby. One of the mosaics was placed above the other one which was completely covered and unknown until the modern restoration. The figures on the older mosaic have thus escaped the iconoclasts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordanjubilee.com/visitjor/sites2.htm|title=Khirbet al Mukhayat|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512160152/http://www.jordanjubilee.com/visitjor/sites2.htm|archive-date=12 May 2008}}</ref>

The town of [[Madaba]] remained an important center of mosaic making during the 5th–8th centuries. In the Church of the Apostles the middle of the main panel Thalassa, goddess of the sea, can be seen surrounded by fishes and other sea creatures. Native Middle Eastern birds, mammals, plants and fruits were also added.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Mosaics of the Madaba Plateau of Jordan |website=Ruth's Jordan Jubilee |url=http://www.jordanjubilee.com/history/mosaics.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103213852/http://www.jordanjubilee.com/history/mosaics.htm |archive-date=3 November 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Saint Catherine's Transfiguration.jpg|thumb|The Transfiguration of Jesus in the [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]]]]
Important Justinian era mosaics decorated the [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] on [[Mount Sinai]] in [[Egypt]]. Generally wall mosaics have not survived in the region because of the destruction of buildings but the St. Catherine's Monastery is exceptional. On the upper wall [[Moses]] is shown in two panels on a landscape background. In the apse we can see the [[Transfiguration of Jesus]] on a golden background. The apse is surrounded with bands containing medallions of apostles and prophets, and two contemporary figure, "Abbot Longinos" and "John the Deacon". The mosaic was probably created in 565/6.

[[Jerusalem]] with its many holy places probably had the highest concentration of mosaic-covered churches but very few of them survived the subsequent waves of destructions. The present remains do not do justice to the original richness of the city. The most important is the so-called "Armenian Mosaic" which was discovered in 1894 on the [[Street of the Prophets]] near [[Damascus Gate]]. It depicts a vine with many branches and grape clusters, which springs from a vase. Populating the vine's branches are peacocks, ducks, storks, pigeons, an eagle, a partridge, and a parrot in a cage. The inscription reads: "For the memory and salvation of all those Armenians whose name the Lord knows." Beneath a corner of the mosaic is a small, natural cave which contained human bones dating to the 5th or 6th centuries. The symbolism of the mosaic and the presence of the burial cave indicates that the room was used as a [[mortuary]] chapel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/jerusalem-armenian-mosaic.htm |title=Armenian Mosaic, Jerusalem |year=2010 |access-date=30 June 2010 |publisher=Sacred-destinations.com}}</ref>

An exceptionally well preserved, carpet-like mosaic floor was uncovered in 1949 in [[al-Eizariya|Bethany]], the early Byzantine church of the [[Tomb of Lazarus (al-Eizariya)|Lazarium]] which was built between 333 and 390. Because of its purely geometrical pattern, the church floor is to be grouped with other mosaics of the time in Palestine and neighboring areas, especially the Constantinian mosaics in the central nave at Bethlehem.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/san/BET04byz.html |title=Bethany in Byzantine times I<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=21 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306011815/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/san/BET04byz.html |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A second church was built above the older one during the 6th century with another more simple geometric mosaic floor.

[[File:Masada Byzantine Church floor mosaic by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|left|Detail from the mosaic floor of the Byzantine church of in [[Masada]]. The monastic community lived here in the 5th–7th centuries.]]
The [[monastic]] communities of the [[Judean Desert]] also decorated their monasteries with mosaic floors. The [[Monastery of Martyrius]] was founded in the end of the 5th century and it was re-discovered in 1982–85. The most important work of art here is the intact geometric mosaic floor of the refectory although the severely damaged church floor was similarly rich.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Early%20History%20-%20Archaeology/The%20Monastery%20of%20Martyrius |title=The Monastery of Martyrius<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=29 June 2008 |archive-date=21 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121201351/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Early%20History%20-%20Archaeology/The%20Monastery%20of%20Martyrius |url-status=live }}</ref> The mosaics in the church of the nearby [[Monastery of Euthymius]] are of later date (discovered in 1930). They were laid down in the Umayyad era, after a devastating earthquake in 659. Two six pointed stars and a red chalice are the most important surviving features.

[[File:Petra-Mosaic-2-2.jpg|thumb|upright=.85|Detail from the mosaic floor of the [[Petra|Petra Church]]]]
Mosaic art also flourished in Christian [[Petra]] where three Byzantine churches were discovered. The most important one was uncovered in 1990. It is known that the walls were also covered with golden glass mosaics but only the floor panels survived as usual. The mosaic of the seasons in the southern aisle is from this first building period from the middle of the 5th century. In the first half of the 6th century the mosaics of the northern aisle and the eastern end of the southern aisle were installed. They depict native as well as exotic or mythological animals, and personifications of the Seasons, Ocean, Earth and Wisdom.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mosaicartsource.wordpress.com/2007/01/21/petra-church-mosaic-floors-petra-jordan/ |title=Petra Church – Mosaic Floors – Petra, Jordan « Mosaic Art Source<!-- Bot generated title --> |date=21 January 2007 |access-date=19 June 2008 |archive-date=8 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308155133/http://mosaicartsource.wordpress.com/2007/01/21/petra-church-mosaic-floors-petra-jordan/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Arab conquest of the [[Middle East]] in the 7th century did not break off the art of mosaic making. Arabs learned and accepted the craft as their own and carried on the classical tradition. During the Umayyad era Christianity retained its importance, churches were built and repaired and some of the most important mosaics of the Christian East were made during the 8th century when the region was under Islamic rule.

The mosaics of the Church of St Stephen in ancient Kastron Mefaa (now [[Umm ar-Rasas]]) were made in 785 (discovered after 1986). The perfectly preserved mosaic floor is the largest one in Jordan. On the central panel hunting and fishing scenes are depicted while another panel illustrates the most important cities of the region. The frame of the mosaic is especially decorative. Six mosaic masters signed the work: Staurachios from Esbus, Euremios, Elias, Constantinus, Germanus and Abdela. It overlays another, damaged, mosaic floor of the earlier (587) "Church of Bishop Sergius." Another four churches were excavated nearby with traces of mosaic decoration.

The last great mosaics in Madaba were made in 767 in the Church of the Virgin Mary (discovered in 1887). It is a masterpiece of the geometric style with a Greek inscription in the central medallion.

With the fall of the [[Umayyad dynasty]] in 750 the Middle East went through deep cultural changes. No great mosaics were made after the end of the 8th century and the majority of churches gradually fell into disrepair and were eventually destroyed. The tradition of mosaic making died out among the Christians and also in the Islamic community.

====Orthodox countries====
[[File:Alexander Nevsky Cathedral Tallinn.jpg|thumb|Mosaic on the pediment of the [[Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Tallinn|Alexander Nevsky Cathedral]] in [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]]]]
[[File:Michael of salonica.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Early 12th-century [[Kyiv]]an mosaic depicting [[St. Demetrius]].]]

The craft has also been popular in early medieval [[Rus' (people)|Rus]], inherited as part of the Byzantine tradition. [[Yaroslav I the Wise|Yaroslav]], the Grand Prince of the [[Kievan Rus']] built a large cathedral in his capital, [[Kyiv]]. The model of the church was the [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]], and it was also called [[Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv|Saint Sophia Cathedral]]. It was built mainly by Byzantine master craftsmen, sent by [[Constantine IX Monomachos|Constantine Monomachos]], between 1037 and 1046. Naturally the more important surfaces in the interior were decorated with golden mosaics. In the dome we can see the traditional stern [[Christ Pantocrator|Pantokrator]] supported by angels. Between the 12 windows of the drum were apostles and the four evangelists on the pendentives. The apse is dominated by an orant [[Theotokos]] with a [[Deesis]] in three medallions above. Below is a Communion of the Apostles.

Prince [[Sviatopolk II of Kiev|Sviatopolk II]] built [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]] in [[Kyiv]] in 1108. The mosaics of the church are undoubtedly works of Byzantine artists. Although the church was destroyed by Soviet authorities, majority of the panels were preserved. Small parts of ornamental mosaic decoration from the 12th century survived in the [[Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod]] but this church was largely decorated with frescoes.

Using mosaics and frescoes in the same building was a unique practice in Ukraine. Harmony was achieved by using the same dominant colors in mosaic and fresco. Both Saint Sophia Cathedral and Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv use this technique.<ref name="Internet encyclopedia of Ukraine">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/Art.asp|title=The art of fresco painting in Ukraine|encyclopedia=Internet encyclopedia of Ukraine|access-date=24 June 2014}}</ref> Mosaics stopped being used for church decoration as early as the 12th century in the eastern Slavic countries. Later Russian churches were decorated with frescoes, similarly then orthodox churches in the Balkan.

[[File:Gelati conch mosaic.JPG|thumb|right|Apse mosaic "Glory of the Theotokos" in [[Gelati Monastery|Gelati]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. {{Circa|1125}}–1130.]]
The apse mosaic of the [[Gelati Monastery]] is a rare example of mosaic use in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. Began by king [[David IV of Georgia|David IV]] and completed by his son [[Demetrius I of Georgia]], the fragmentary panel depicts Theotokos flanked by two archangels. The use of mosaic in Gelati attests to some Byzantine influence in the country and was a demonstration of the imperial ambition of the Bagrationids. The mosaic covered church could compete in magnificence with the churches of Constantinople. Gelati is one of few mosaic creations which survived in Georgia but fragments prove that the early churches of Pitsunda and Tsromi were also decorated with mosaic as well as other, lesser known sites. The destroyed 6th century mosaic floors in the [[Pitsunda Cathedral]] have been inspired by Roman prototypes. In [[Tsromi]] the tesserae are still visible on the walls of the 7th-century church but only faint lines hint at the original scheme. Its central figure was Christ standing and displaying a scroll with Georgian text.