Middle Ages Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Early Middle Ages== {{main|Early Middle Ages}} ===Post-Roman kingdoms=== {{main|Barbarian kingdoms}} [[File:Europe and the Near East at 476 AD.png|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=A map depicting about a dozen polities in the west, and the Byzantine Empire in the east|[[Barbarian kingdoms|Post-Roman kingdoms]] and tribes, and the [[Byzantine Empire]] after the end of the Western Roman Empire]] In the post-Roman world, the fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes is well documented. [[Thing (assembly)|Popular assemblies]] that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than had been common in the Roman state developed into legislative and judicial bodies.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=98–101}} Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=99–100}} Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new political entities was based on Roman intellectual traditions.{{sfn|Rubin|2014|pp=11–13}} Many of them no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rents. This meant there was less need for large tax revenues and so the [[Roman Empire#Taxation|taxation systems]] decayed.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=102–103}} In Britain, the local [[Celtic Britons]]' culture had little impact on the Anglo-Saxons' way of life, but the linguistic assimilation of masses of the natives to the newcomers is evident. By around 600, new political centres emerged, some local leaders accumulated considerable wealth, and a number of [[Heptarchy|small kingdoms]] such as [[Wessex]] and [[Mercia]] were formed. Smaller kingdoms in present-day [[Wales in the early Middle Ages|Wales]] and [[Scotland in the early Middle Ages|Scotland]] were still under the control of the native Britons and [[Picts]].{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=156–159}} [[History of Ireland (400–795)|Ireland]] was divided into even smaller political units, perhaps as many as [[List of Irish kingdoms|150 tribal kingdoms]].{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=164–165}} The [[Ostrogoths]] moved to Italy from the Balkans under [[Theoderic the Great]] (r. 493–526). He set up [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|a kingdom]] marked by its co-operation between the natives and the conquerors. Power struggles between Romanised and traditionalist Ostrogothic groups followed his death, providing the opportunity for the Byzantines to [[Gothic War (535–554)|reconquer Italy]].{{sfn|James|2009|pp=82–94}} The Burgundians settled in Gaul where they reorganised [[Kingdom of the Burgundians|their kingdom]].{{sfn|James|2009|pp=77–78}} Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and Celtic Britons set up stable polities. [[Francia]] was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king of whom much is known is [[Childeric I]] (d. 481). Under his son [[Clovis I]] (r. 509–11), the founder of the [[Merovingian dynasty]], the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity.{{sfn|James|2009|pp=79–81}} Unlike other Germanic peoples, the Franks preferred mainstream Christianity to Arianism, which facilitated their cooperation with the native [[Gallo-Roman culture|Gallo-Roman]] aristocracy.{{sfn|Brown|1989|p=124}} Britons fleeing from {{lang|la|Britannia}}—modern-day Great Britain—settled in what is now [[Brittany]].{{refn|group=note|Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.{{sfn|James|2009|p=78}}}}{{sfn|James|2009|p=78}} Other monarchies were established [[Visigothic Kingdom|by the Visigoths]] in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], [[Kingdom of the Suebi|the Suebi]] in northwestern Iberia, [[Vandal Kingdom|the Vandals]] in [[North Africa]],{{sfn|James|2009|p=77}} and the [[Lombards]] in [[Northern Italy]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=203–209}} Coming from the Asian steppes, the nomadic [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] conquered most [[Early Slavs|Slavic]], [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] and Germanic tribes in the lowlands along the Lower and Middle Danube by the end of the 6th century, and they were routinely able to force the Byzantine emperors to pay tribute.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=51–59}} In 681, another steppe people, the [[Bulgars]] [[Battle of Ongal|defeated]] a Byzantine imperial army, and established the [[First Bulgarian Empire]], subjugating the local Slavic tribes near the [[Danube Delta]].{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=71–77}} The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in languages. [[Latin]], the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by distinct [[vernacular languages]] which evolved from Latin, collectively known as [[Romance languages]]. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but the migrations of the Slavs expanded the area of [[Slavic languages]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]].{{sfn|Davies|1996|pp=235–238}} ===Byzantine survival=== {{main|Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty}} [[File:Sanvitale03.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|alt=A crowned man holding a bowl, surrounded by clerics, courtiers and guardsmen|A [[mosaic]] showing [[Justinian]] with Archbishop [[Maximianus of Ravenna]], bodyguards, clerics and courtiers ([[Basilica of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]], Italy)]] The Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early {{nowrap|7th century}}. Here political life was marked by closer relations between the political state and Christian Church, with theological matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=81–82}} Legal developments included the codification of [[Roman law]];{{sfn|Wickham|2009|p=83}} the most comprehensive compilation, the {{Lang|la|[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]}}, took place under Emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian]] (r. 527–65).{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=130–131}} The Byzantines regularly employed [[eunuch]]s for administrative tasks, or as guardians or tutors to women and children, as they regarded castrated men as exceptionally intelligent and loyal servants.{{sfn|Ringrose|2016|pp=374–375}} Justinian nearly perished during the [[Nika riots]], a popular revolt that destroyed half of Constantinople in 532. After crushing the revolt, he reinforced the autocratic elements of the imperial government and mobilised his troops against the Arian western kingdoms. The general [[Belisarius]] (d. 565) conquered North Africa [[Vandalic War|from the Vandals]], and attacked the Ostrogoths, but the campaign was interrupted by an unexpected Sasanian invasion from the east. Between 541 and 543, a deadly [[Plague of Justinian|outbreak of plague]] decimated the empire's population. Justinian developed an extensive system of border forts to cover the lack of military personnel but ceased to finance the maintenance of [[Roman roads|public roads]]. In a decade, he resumed expansionism, completing the conquest of the Ostrogothic kingdom, and seizing much of southern Spain from the Visigoths.{{sfn|Brown|1989|pp=150–156}} Justinian's reconquests and excessive building program have been criticised by historians for bringing his realm to the brink of bankruptcy, but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian's successors were because of other factors, including the massive expansion of the Avars and their Slav allies.{{sfn|Brown|2001|pp=8–10}} In the east, border defences collapsed during a [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|new war]] with the Sasanian Empire, and the Persians seized Egypt, Syria, and much of [[Anatolia]]. In 626, the Avars, Slavs and Persians [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|attacked Constantinople]] but could not conquer it. Two years later, Emperor [[Heraclius]] (r. 610–41) launched an unexpected counterattack against the heart of the Sassanian Empire, recovering all territories previously lost to the Persians.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=138–141}} ===Western society=== {{see also|Early medieval European dress}} In Western Europe, values attached to [[Latin literature|Latin scholarship]] and [[Education in Ancient Rome|education]] mostly disappeared. While literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than a sign of elite status. By the late {{nowrap|6th century}}, the principal means of religious instruction had become music and art rather than the book.{{sfn|Brown|1989|pp=174–181}} Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship, but some [[Early medieval literature|original works]] were created. The writings of [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] (d. 489), [[Cassiodorus]] (d. {{circa|585}}), and [[Boethius]] (d. {{circa|525}}) were typical of the age.{{sfn|Brown|2001|pp=45–49}} Aristocratic culture focused on great feasts rather than on literary pursuits. Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour. These ties led to the prevalence of the feud in aristocratic society. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some sort of [[weregild|compensation]].{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=189–193}} Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers, with the role of mother of an underage ruler being especially prominent in Francia. In Anglo-Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by [[abbess]]es of monasteries.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=195–199}} Women's influence on politics was fragile, and early medieval authors tended to depict powerful women in a bad light.{{refn|group=note|Among the powerful women, the Arian Visigothic queen [[Goiswintha]] (d. 589) was a vehement but unsuccessful opponent of her people's conversion to Catholicism, and the Frankish queen [[Brunhilda of Austrasia]] (d. 613) was torn to pieces by horses at the age of 70.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=116, 197}}}}{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=116, 195–197}} In Scandinavian societies, women were more respected: a [[Vikings|Viking]] woman could command ships,{{refn|group=note|In the {{nowrap|9th century}}, [[Aud the Deep-Minded (Ketilsdóttir)|Unn the Deep-Minded]] assumed the command of a [[knarr]] ship after her son died; the 10th-century "[[Birka grave Bj 581|Birka Warrior]]" was a woman interred with an axe, sword, quiver of arrows, and spears.{{sfn|Ramirez|2022|pp=97–98, 117–118}}}} act as a [[Seeress (Germanic)|seeress]], and demand a compensation from her husband for [[domestic violence]].{{sfn|Ramirez|2022|pp=113–118}} Women usually died at considerably younger age than men, primarily owing to [[maternal death|complications at childbirth]]. The disparity between the numbers of marriageable women and grown men led to the detailed regulation of legal institutions protecting women's interests, including their right to the {{lang|de|[[Morgengabe]]}} ('morning gift').{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=120}} Early medieval laws acknowledged a man's right to have long-term sexual relationships with women other than his wife, such as [[concubinage|concubines]], but women were expected to remain faithful. Clerics censured sexual unions outside marriage, and [[monogamy]] became also the norm of secular law in the {{nowrap|9th century}}.{{sfn|Bitel|2002|pp=180–182}} [[File:Frühmittelalterliches Dorf.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|alt=A group of wooden structures covered with shingles or thatch|Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]]] [[Landholding]] patterns were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented holdings, but in other areas large contiguous blocks of land were the norm. These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having a great deal of autonomy.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=205–210}} Land settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as {{nowrap|700 inhabitants}}, others on isolated farms.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=211–212}} As legislation made a clear distinction between free and unfree, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise into the aristocracy through military service.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|p=215}} Demand for slaves was covered through warring and raids. After the Anglo-Saxons' conversion to Christianity, slave hunters mainly targeted the pagan Slav tribes—hence the English word "slave" from {{lang|la|slavicus}}, the [[Medieval Latin]] term for Slavs.{{sfn|McCormick|2010|pp=733–744}} Christian ethics brought about significant changes in the position of slaves from the {{nowrap|7th–8th centuries}}, as they were no more regarded as their lords' property.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=119–120}} City life and culture was declining. Although the northern Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size.{{refn|group=note|Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the {{nowrap|6th century}}.{{sfn|Brown|2001|p=26}}}}{{sfn|Brown|2001|pp=24–26}} In Northern Europe, cities also shrank, while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials.{{sfn|Gies|Gies|1973|pp=3–4}} The Jewish communities survived in Spain, southern Gaul and Italy. The Visigothic kings made concentrated efforts to convert the [[Sephardic Jews|Hispanic Jews]] to Christianity but the Jewish community [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|quickly regenerated]] after the [[Muslim conquest of Spain]].{{sfn|Chazan|2006|pp=77–78, 90–93, 116–117}} Whereas Muslim rulers employed Jewish courtiers,{{sfn|Chazan|2006|p=92}} Christian legislation forbade the Jews' appointment to government positions.{{sfn|McCormick|2010|p=649}} ===Rise of Islam=== {{main|Spread of Islam|Early Muslim conquests}} [[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|alt=Map of the Middle East and the Mediterranean, showing the expansion of the Muslim empire|The [[early Muslim conquests]] {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under [[Muhammad]], 622–632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], 632–661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], 661–750}}]] Religious beliefs were in flux in the lands along the Eastern Roman and Persian frontiers, as state-sponsored Roman missionaries proselytised among the pagan steppe peoples, and the Persians made attempts to enforce [[Zoroastrianism]] on the Christian [[Armenians]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=136, 141–142}} The emergence of [[Islam]] in Arabia during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]] (d. 632) brought about more radical changes. After his death, Islamic forces conquered [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Syria]], [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]], and [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Egypt]]. The Eastern Romans halted the Muslim expansion at Constantinople in [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)|674–78]] and [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)|717–18]], but in the west, Islamic troops conquered [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|North Africa]], annihilated [[Muslim conquest of Spain|the Visigothic Kingdom]] in 711, and invaded [[Umayyad invasion of Gaul|southern Gaul]] from 713.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=143–150, 160, 226}} The conquerors bypassed the mountainous northwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula. Here a small kingdom, [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturias]] emerged as the centre of local resistance.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=376–377}} The defeat of [[Muslim]] forces at the [[Battle of Tours]] in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] and its replacement by the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. The Abbasids were concerned with the Middle East, losing control of sections of the Muslim lands in the west. Umayyad descendants took over [[Al-Andalus]] (or Muslim Spain), the [[Aghlabids]] controlled North Africa, and the [[Tulunids]] became rulers of Egypt.{{sfn|Brown|2001|p=15}} The Islamisation of the countryside in Al-Andalus was slow. Christians were regularly employed in state administration, but violent interreligious conflicts could lead to their mass migration to the north.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=373–375}} Apart from Byzantium, Muslim Spain was the only place in Europe where eunuchs played a preeminent role in administration and social life, holding positions such as guardians of religious shrines, or [[harem]] servants.{{sfn|Ringrose|2016|pp=372–373}} ===Trade and economy=== {{see also|Saqaliba}} [[File:Münze Gold Solidus Theudebert I um 534 (obverse).jpg|thumb|left|alt=A coin depicting a man's highly stylised crowned head|Gold [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] of the [[Austrasia]]n king [[Theudebert I]] (r. 533–47/48)]] As the migrations and conquests disrupted trade networks throughout the old Roman lands, goods from long-range trade were replaced with local products. Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods or metalworks.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=218–219}} In the 7th and {{nowrap|8th centuries}}, new commercial networks were developing in northern Europe. Goods like furs, [[walrus ivory]] and amber were delivered from the Baltic region to western Europe, triggering the establishment of [[Road toll (historical)|toll]] stations and conflicts over their control.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=347–349}} In the post-Roman kingdoms, [[base metal]] [[Coining (mint)|coinage]] nearly ceased but Roman bronze coins remained in circulation. Although gold coins were struck, they were mainly spent for extraordinary expenditures, such as the purchase of land or luxury goods. A shift from gold coinage to the mint of silver pennies began in the late {{nowrap|7th century}}, not independently of the cessation of Byzantine subsidy payments to the Lombards and Franks. The elites' new emphasis on Christian charity also increased the demand for coins of lower value.{{sfn|Naismith|2023|pp=15, 227–228, 236–237, 268–271}} The flourishing Islamic economies' constant demand for fresh labour force and raw materials opened up a new market for Europe around 750. Europe emerged as a major supplier of [[house slave]]s and [[Mamluk|slave soldiers]] for Al-Andalus, northern Africa and the [[Levant]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|p=354}}{{sfn|McCormick|2010|pp=753–754, 763}} In addition, timber, fur and arms were delivered from Europe to the Mediterranean, while Europe imported spices, medicine, incense, and silk.{{sfn|McCormick|2010|pp=708–733}} The large rivers connecting distant regions facilitated the expansion of transcontinental trade.{{sfn|McCormick|2010|pp=791–792}} Contemporaneous reports indicate that Anglo-Saxon merchants visited fairs at Paris, pirates preyed on tradesman on the Danube, and Eastern Frankish merchants reached as far as [[Zaragoza]] in Al-Andalus.{{sfn|McCormick|2010|pp=670–677}} ===Church life=== [[File:Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|alt=Two tonsured men, one with a dove on his shoulders, and the other writing a codex|An 11th-century illustration of Pope [[Pope Gregory I|Gregory the Great]] dictating to a secretary, inspired by the [[Holy Spirit]]]] The idea of Christian unity endured, although differences in ideology and practice between the Eastern and Western Churches were growing.{{sfn|Brown|2001|p=41}} The native Romans' aversion to the Arian conquerors reinforced the traditional Christian concept of the [[separation of church and state]] in the west, whereas this notion was alien to eastern clergymen who regarded the Roman state as an instrument of divine providence.{{sfn|Brown|2001|p=41}} After the Muslim conquests, the Byzantine emperors could less effectively intervene in the west. When [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] (r. 717–41) prohibited the display of paintings representing human figures in places of worship, the [[Pope|papacy]] openly rejected [[Caesaropapism|his claim]] to declare new dogmas by imperial edicts.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=220–233}} Although the Byzantine Church condemned [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclasm]] in 843, further issues such as fierce rivalry for ecclesiastic jurisdiction over newly converted peoples, and the [[filioque|unilateral modification]] of the [[Nicene Creed]] in the west widened to the extent that the differences were greater than the similarities.{{sfn|Brown|2001|pp=45–46}} In the west, the [[tithe]], originally a voluntarily contribution, was levied as a regular [[church tax]] on agrarian products from the {{nowrap|10th century}}.{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|p=35}} Few of the Western [[bishop]]s looked to the papacy for leadership. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where [[Pope Gregory I|Gregory the Great]] (pope 590–604) had sent a [[Gregorian mission|mission]] to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=170–172}} People did not visit churches regularly. Instead, meetings with itinerant clergy and [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrimages]] to popular saints' [[shrine]]s were instrumental in religious education.{{sfn|Bitel|2002|pp=130–133}} [[Hiberno-Scottish mission|Irish missionaries]] were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the {{nowrap|7th centuries}}.{{sfn|Colish|2002|pp=62–63}} They were the first to use special handbooks known as [[penitential]]s to determine the appropriate acts of [[penance]]—typically prayers, and [[Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church|fasts]]—for [[Christian views on sin|sinners]]. They placed a special emphasis on sexuality and prescribed severe penances for adulterers, [[fornication|fornicators]] and those engaged in non-reproductive sexual acts, such as [[Catholic Church and homosexuality|homosexuals]].{{sfn|Bitel|2002|pp=127–130}} In contrast with official Christianity, the [[Bogomilism|Bogomils]] of the Balkans condemned sexual reproduction as they regarded Satan the creator of the physical universe.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=527–530}} The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of [[Christian monasticism]]. Monastic ideals spread [[Desert Fathers|from Egypt]] through [[Hagiography|hagiographical literature]], especially the ''[[Anthony the Great|Life of Anthony]]''. Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life, called [[Cenobitic monasticism|cenobitism]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=75–77}} The Italian monk [[Benedict of Nursia]] (d. 547) developed the [[Rule of Saint Benedict|Benedictine Rule]] which became widely used in western monasteries.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=239–240}} In the east, the monastic rules compiled by [[Theodore the Studite]] (d. 826) gained popularity after they were adopted in the [[Great Lavra]] on [[Mount Athos]] in the 960s.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=322, 495}} Monasteries had a deep effect on the local society, in various cases acting as [[land trust]]s for powerful families and important centres of political authority.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=185–187}} They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin [[Classics#Classical Rome|classics]] were copied by monks.{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|pp=43–44}} Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as [[Bede]] (d. 735), a native of northern England.{{sfn|Colish|2002|pp=63–65}} The Byzantine missionary [[Saints Cyril and Methodius|Constantine]] (d. 869) developed [[Old Church Slavonic]] as a new [[liturgical language]], establishing the basis for flourishing Slavic religious literature; around 900 a new script was adopted for it, now known for Constantine's [[monastic name]] as [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]].{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=183–189, 209–213, 219–220}} The erudite [[Duchy of Saxony|Saxon]] nun [[Hrosvitha]] (d. 1000) authored the first non-liturgical medieval dramas.{{sfn|Bitel|2002|pp=285–286}}{{sfn|Colish|2002|p=163}} In Western Christendom, [[laity|lay]] influence over church affairs came to a climax in the {{nowrap|10th century}}. Aristocrats regarded the churches and monasteries under [[Jus patronatus|their patronage]] as [[proprietary church|their personal property]], and [[simony]]—the sale of church offices—was a common practice. Simony aroused a general fear as many believed that irregularly appointed priests could not confer valid [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacraments]] such as [[baptism]].{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=214–216}} Monastic communities were the first to react to this fear by the rigorous observance of their rules. The establishment of [[Cluny Abbey]] in [[Duchy of Burgundy|Burgundy]] in 909 initiated a more radical change as Cluny was freed from lay control and placed under the protection of the papacy. The [[Cluniac Reforms]] indicated that the reformist idea of the "[[libertas ecclesiae|Liberty of the Church]]" could be achieved through submission to the papacy.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=87}} ===Carolingian Europe=== {{main|Carolingian Empire}} [[File:Aachen_Germany_Imperial-Cathedral-12a.jpg|thumb|right|alt=The interior of a tall church with two levels of columns covered by arches|Interior of the [[Palatine Chapel, Aachen|Palatine Chapel]] at [[Palace of Aachen|Charlemagne's palace]] in [[Aachen]], Germany]] The Merovingian kings customarily distributed Francia among their sons and destroyed their own power base by extensive land grants. In the northeastern Frankish kingdom [[Austrasia]], the [[Arnulfings]] were the most prominent beneficiaries of royal favour. As hereditary [[Mayor of the Palace|Mayors of the Palace]], they were the power behind the throne from the {{nowrap|mid-7th century}}. One of them, [[Pepin of Herstal]] (d. 714), also assumed power in the central Frankish realm [[Neustria]]. His son [[Charles Martel]] (d. 741) took advantage of the permanent Muslim threat to confiscate church property and raise new troops by parcelling it out among the recruits.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=150–154}} The [[Carolingian dynasty|Carolingians]], as Charles Martel's descendants are known, succeeded the Merovingians as the new royal dynasty of Francia in 751. This year the last Merovingian king [[Childeric III]] (r. 743–51) was deposed, and Charles Martel's son [[Pepin the Short]] (r. 751–68) was crowned king with the consent of the Frankish leaders and the papacy. Pepin attacked the Lombards and enforced their promise to respect the [[Patrimony of Saint Peter|possessions of the papacy]]. His subsequent [[Donation of Pepin|donation of Central Italian territories]] to the [[Holy See]] marked the beginnings of the [[Papal States]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=276–279}}{{sfn|Brown|2001|pp=97–99}} Pepin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles, more often known as [[Charlemagne]] (r. 768–814), and [[Carloman I|Carloman]] (r. 768–71). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charlemagne reunited Francia and embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion. He [[Saxon Wars|subjugated]] the Saxons, conquered the Lombards, and created a [[Marca Hispanica|new border province]] in northern Spain.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=280–288}} Frankish troops also [[Avar Wars|destroyed]] the Avars which facilitated the development of small Slav principalities, mainly ruled by ambitious warlords under Frankish suzerainty.{{refn|group=note|Among the Slav rulers, [[Ljudevit (Lower Pannonia)|Liudewit]] (d. 823) held lands along the [[Sava]] river, and [[Pribina]] (d. 861) in the [[March of Pannonia]].{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=105–110}}}}{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=103–110}} The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 marked a return of the Western Roman Empire although the Byzantines did not recognise him as a second "emperor of the Romans".{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=159–162}} The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called [[count]]s, who administered the [[county|counties]] the empire had been divided into.{{sfn|Davies|1996|p=302}} The central administration supervised the counts through imperial emissaries called ''[[Missus dominicus|missi dominici]]''. They served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters. The clerics of the [[royal chapel]] were responsible for recording important royal grants and decisions.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=162–165}} Charlemagne's court was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the [[Carolingian Renaissance]]. Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies under the auspices of the Anglo-Saxon scholar [[Alcuin]] (d. 804). He developed a new [[Writing system|script]], today known as [[Carolingian minuscule]], which facilitated reading by the clear separation of words, and the use of extensive punctuation. Charlemagne sponsored changes in [[Christian liturgy|church liturgy]], imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the [[Gregorian chant]] in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning. New works on various topics and schoolbooks were also produced.{{refn|group=note|The {{lang|la|[[Vita Karoli Magni]]}} ('Life of Charlemagne') by [[Einhard]] (d. 840) is a prominent example of original historical works.{{sfn|Colish|2002|p=69}}}}{{sfn|Colish|2002|pp=66–70}} ===Breakup of the Carolingian Empire=== {{main|East Francia|Middle Francia|West Francia|Viking Age}} {{multiple image | footer = Territorial divisions of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in 843, 855, and 870 | alt = Three maps about the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire first into three, then into five, and finally into three successor states | align=left | direction = horizontal | width = 135 | image1 = Carolingian territorial divisions, 843.png | width1 = {{#expr: (120 * 497 / 594) round 0}} | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Carolingian territorial divisions, 855.png | width2 = {{#expr: (120 * 497 / 594) round 0}} | alt2 = | caption2 = | image3 = Carolingian territorial divisions, 870.png | width3 = {{#expr: (120 * 497 / 594) round 0}} | alt3 = | caption3 = }} Charlemagne continued the Frankish tradition of dividing his empire between all his sons, but only one son, [[Louis the Pious]] (r. 814–40), was still alive by 813. Louis's reign was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons, and civil wars between various alliances of father and sons. Three years after his death, his three surviving sons divided the empire among themselves by the [[Treaty of Verdun]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=318–331}} A kingdom between the [[Rhine]] and [[Rhone]] rivers was created for [[Lothair I]] (r. 817–55) to go with his lands in [[Kingdom of Italy (Carolingian)|Italy]], and his imperial title was recognised. [[Louis the German]] (r. 843–76) was in control of the eastern lands in modern-day Germany. [[Charles the Bald]] (r. 843–77) received the western Frankish lands, comprising most of modern-day France.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=xxvi–xxvii, 396}} Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants, eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=186–189}} There was a brief re-uniting of the empire by [[Charles the Fat]] in 884, although the actual units of the empire retained their separate administrations.{{sfn|Collins|2010|p=337}} By the time he died early in 888, the Carolingians were close to extinction, and non-dynastic claimants assumed power in most of the successor states, such as the Parisien count [[Odo of France|Odo]] in Francia (r. 888–98).{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=401–403}} In the eastern lands the dynasty died out with the death of [[Louis the Child]] (r. 899–911), and the selection of the [[Duchy of Franconia|Franconian]] duke [[Conrad I of Germany|Conrad I]] (r. 911–18) as king.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=254}} In West Francia, the dynasty was restored first in 898, then in 936, but the last Carolingians were unable to keep the aristocracy under control. In 987, the dynasty was replaced, with the crowning of the powerful aristocrat [[Hugh Capet]] (r. 987–96) as king.{{refn|group=note|Hugh Capet was a grandson of King Odo's brother [[Robert I of France|Robert I]], himself also a king of West Francia (r. 922–23).{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=341–342}}}}{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=341–342}} Frankish culture and the Carolingian methods of state administration had a significant impact on the neighboring peoples. Frankish threat triggered the formation of new states along the empire's eastern frontier—[[Duchy of Bohemia|Bohemia]], [[Great Moravia|Moravia]], and [[Duchy of Croatia|Croatia]].{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=488–489}} The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings, who also [[Viking activity in the British Isles|raided the British Isles]] and settled there. In 911, the Viking chieftain [[Rollo]] (d. {{Circa|931}}) received permission from the Frankish king [[Charles the Simple]] (r. 898–922) to settle in what became [[Normandy]]. The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual [[Hungarian invasions of Europe|Magyar assault]] until the invaders' defeat at the [[Battle of Lechfeld]] in 955.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=191–199}} In the Mediterranean, Arab pirates launched regular raids against Italy and southern France, and the Aghlabids [[Muslim conquest of Sicily|conquered Sicily]], and the Umayyads of Al-Andalus annexed the [[Balearic Islands]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=394–395}} ===New kingdoms and Byzantine revival=== {{see also|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty|Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)|Byzantine–Bulgarian wars|Christianisation of Bulgaria|Christianisation of Kievan Rus'}} [[File:Christ Magdeburg Cathedral Met 41.100.157.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A carved ivory plate showing a bearded man with a halo around his head receiving the scale model of a church from a crowned man|10th-century [[Ottonian art|Ottonian]] plaque from the [[Magdeburg Ivories]] with Christ receiving a church from {{nowrap|[[Otto I]]}}]] The Vikings' settlement in the British Isles led to the formation of new political entities, including the small but militant [[Kingdom of Dublin]] in Ireland.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=350, 365}} The Anglo-Saxon king [[Alfred the Great]] (r. 871–99) came to an agreement with [[Great Heathen Army|Danish invaders]] in 879, acknowledging the existence of an independent [[Danelaw|Viking realm]] in Britain.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=196}}{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=362–363}} By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had restored Anglo-Saxon control over the territory.{{sfn|Collins|2010|p=368}} In northern Britain, [[Kenneth MacAlpin]] (d. {{circa|860}}) united the Picts and the [[Scottish people|Scots]] into the [[Kingdom of Alba]].{{sfn|Wickham|2009|p=169}} In the early {{nowrap|10th century}}, the [[Ottonian dynasty]] established itself in [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]], and was engaged in driving back the Magyars and fighting the [[Stem duchy|disobedient dukes]]. After an appeal by the widowed Queen [[Adelaide of Italy]] (d. 999) for protection, {{nowrap|[[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]]}} (r. 936–73) crossed the Alps into Italy, married the young widow and had himself crowned king in [[Pavia]] in 951. His coronation as [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in Rome in 962 demonstrated his claim to Charlemagne's legacy.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=394–411}} Otto's successors remained keenly interested in Italian affairs but the absent German kings were unable to assert permanent authority over the local aristocracy.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=255–257}} In the Iberian Peninsula, the [[Basques]]' [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass (824)|fight for independence]] led to the formation of the [[Kingdom of Navarre]], and the [[counts of Barcelona]] gained autonomy in the Carolingian border province. Asturias expanded slowly south, and continued as the [[Kingdom of León]] in the {{nowrap|10th century}}.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=376–386}}{{sfn|Wickham|2009|p=500}} The Eastern European trade routes towards Asia were controlled by the [[Khazars]]. Their multiethnic empire [[Arab–Khazar wars|resisted]] the Muslim expansion, and their leaders converted to Judaism.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=131–134, 141–142}} At the end of the {{nowrap|9th century}}, a new trade route developed, bypassing Khazar territory and connecting Central Asia with Europe across [[Volga Bulgaria]]; here the local inhabitants converted to Islam.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=143–151}} Swedish traders and slave hunters ranged down the rivers of the [[East European Plain]], captured [[Kyiv]] from the Khazars, and even attempted to seize Constantinople in [[Rus'–Byzantine War (860)|860]] and [[Rus'–Byzantine War (907)|907]]. In Scandinavia, contacts with Francia paved the way for missionary efforts by Christian clergy, and [[Christianization of Scandinavia|Christianisation]] was closely associated with the growth of centralised kingdoms in [[History of Denmark|Denmark]], [[History of Norway|Norway]], and [[History of Sweden (800–1521)|Sweden]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=366–370}} Norse colonists [[Settlement of Iceland|settled in Iceland]] and created a [[Icelandic Commonwealth|political system]] that hindered the accumulation of power by ambitious [[Gothi|chieftains]].{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=476–477}} Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor [[Basil I]] (r. 867–86) and his successors [[Leo VI the Wise|Leo VI]] (r. 886–912) and [[Constantine VII]] (r. 913–59), members of the [[Macedonian dynasty]]. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the [[Macedonian Renaissance]]. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors [[John I Tzimiskes|John I]] (r. 969–76) and [[Basil II]] (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire.{{sfn|Davies|1996|pp=318–320}} Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the [[Moravians (tribe)|Moravians]], Danubian Bulgars, [[Czechs]], [[Polish people|Poles]], Magyars, and the inhabitants of the [[Kievan Rus']].{{sfn|Davies|1996|pp=321–326}} After Moravia fell victim to [[Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin|Magyar invasions]] around 900, dukes of the Czech [[Přemyslid dynasty]] consolidated authority in Bohemia.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=391–400}} In [[History of Poland during the Piast dynasty|Poland]], the destruction of old power centres accompanied the formation of state under the [[Piast dynasty|Piast dukes]].{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=343–347}} In [[Principality of Hungary|Hungary]], the princes of the [[Árpád dynasty]] applied extensive violence to crush opposition by rival Magyar chieftains.{{sfn|Barber|2004|p=334}} The [[Rurik dynasty|Rurikid princes]] of Kievan Rus' emerged as the hegemon power of East Europe's vast forest zones after [[Rus' people|Rus']] raiders sacked the Khazar capital [[Atil]] in 965.{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=289–300}} Bulgaria was [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|annexed by]] the Byzantines between 971 and 1018.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=488–489}}{{sfn|Curta|2019|pp=239–248}} ===Architecture and art=== {{see also|Migration Period art|pre-Romanesque art and architecture}} [[File:KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A page from a book depicting a stylised bearded man holding a book, and four other men|A page from the ''[[Book of Kells]]'', an [[illuminated manuscript]] created in the British Isles]] New basilicas were built in the major Roman cities and the post-Roman kingdoms in the {{nowrap|4th–6th centuries}}.{{refn|group=note|Examples include a 4th-century basilica uncovered under the [[Barcelona Cathedral]], the five-aisled [[Cathedral of Saint Étienne, Paris|Cathedral of Saint Étienne]] in Paris, and the huge [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe]] in [[Ravenna]].{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=28–29}}}}{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=28–29}} Byzantine church architecture adopted an alternative model imitating the rectangular plan and the [[dome]] of Justinian's [[Hagia Sophia]], the largest single roofed structure of the Roman world.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=232–233}} As the spacious basilicas became of little use with the decline of urban centres in the west, they gave way to smaller churches until the basilica form of architecture revived in the Carolingian Empire.{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=21–44}} One new standard feature of Carolingian basilicas is the use of a [[transept]], or the "arms" of a T-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long [[nave]].{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=43–44}} In Al-Andalus, the [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba|Great Mosque of Córdoba]] became an extraordinary monument of [[Moorish architecture]].{{sfn|Adams|2011|p=172}} Magnificent halls built of timber or stone were the centres of political and social life. Their design often adopted elements of Later Roman architecture like [[pilaster]]s, columns, and sculptured discs.{{refn|group=note|Later Roman ornaments decorate Charlemagne's [[Palace of Aachen|palace at Aachen]], the Carolingian [[Aula regia|royal palace at Ingelheim]], and the Asturian [[Santa María del Naranco|kings' palace at Oviedo]].{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=96–97}}}}{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=96–97}} After the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire, the spread of aristocratic castles indicates a transition from communal fortifications to private defence. Most castles were wooden structures but the wealthiest lords built stone fortresses.{{refn|group=note|An early example of stone fortresses is [[Château de Doué-la-Fontaine|the residential keep]] built by [[Theobald I, Count of Blois]] (d. 975) around 950.{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=88–89}}}} One or more towers, now known as [[keep]]s, were their most characteristic features but castles often developed into multifunctional compounds with their [[drawbridge]]s, fortified courtyards, [[cistern]]s or wells, halls, chapels, stables and workshops.{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=83–90}} Gold pouring to the tribal leaders from the Roman Empire was regularly remoulded into new artifacts, such as massive necklaces, and eagle-shaped [[Fibula (brooch)|fibulae]] by local goldsmiths. Their unrealistic style, often influenced by Iranian [[polychrome]] and [[cloisonné]] metalworks, was introduced into Roman territory by the invading peoples.{{sfn|Henderson|1993|pp=35–40}} Artisans working for post-Roman elites developed a distinctly abstract design, characterised by ribbons and highly [[Animal style#Germanic animal style|stylised animal]] motifs.{{sfn|Nees|2002|pp=104–105}} [[Early medieval literature|Literary works]], like the [[Old English]] epic poem ''[[Beowulf]]'', and the Nordic [[saga]]s refer to great royal treasures but only a few of them survived, including the [[grave good]]s from Childeric's tomb at [[Tournai]], and the rich Anglo-Saxon burial at [[Sutton Hoo]]. Religious art quickly assimilated several elements of the secular style, such as [[strapwork]] ornamenting, and extensive segmentation.{{sfn|Henderson|1993|pp=47–57}} Paintings have mainly survived in richly decorated [[Gospel Book]]s, including the ''[[Book of Kells]]'' and the ''[[Book of Lindisfarne]]''—two representative works of the [[Insular art]] of Ireland and Northumbria.{{refn|group=note|As illuminated books were flowing from the British Isles to Francia, the Insular style had a marked impact on Frankish art.{{sfn|Henderson|1993|pp=63–64}}}}{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=41–42}} The [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] tradition of realistic portrayal survived in the Mediterranean.{{sfn|Kitzinger|1969|pp=22–28}} Although the iconoclastic movement restricted [[Byzantine art]], the [[Iconodulism|iconophiles']] triumph paved the way for an [[Macedonian art (Byzantine)|artistic renewal]].{{refn|group=note|Under the Macedonian emperors, the old churches were redecorated, and the newly built churches, like the [[Daphni Monastery]] in Greece, were embellished with mosaics and icons. Richly decorated ivory panels, such as the [[Harbaville Triptych]], show the renewal of [[ivory carving]] during the same period.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=36–37}}}}{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=32–38}} The more naturalistic Mediterranean style served as an important source of inspiration for western artists under Charlemagne who treated visual arts as a powerful instrument of education and propaganda.{{sfn|Kitzinger|1969|pp=40–41}} After a long pause, [[Carolingian art]] rediscovered the human figure, and western artists often depicted people in illuminated [[codex|codices]].{{refn|group=note|Examples include vivid caricatures in the ''[[Utrecht Psalter]]'', and more naturalistic miniatures in the ''[[Vienna Coronation Gospels|Gospel Book of Charlemagne]]''.{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=47–49}}}} These were often protected by [[Treasure binding|sumptuous book covers]], made of gold, pearls, and [[Cabochon|polished gemstones]].{{sfn|Benton|2002|pp=47–49}} Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative [[monumental sculpture]] in [[Christian art]],{{sfn|Lasko|1972|pp=16–18}} and by the end of the period near life-sized figures such as the [[Gero Cross]] were common in important churches.{{sfn|Henderson|1993|pp=233–238}} In England, [[List of illuminated later Anglo-Saxon manuscripts|book illuminators]] freely enriched their Insular heritage with Carolingian motifs, such as sprigs of foliage. In post-Carolingian Germany, manuscripts illustrated with lively pictorial cycles indicate the direct impact of contemporary Byzantine art on [[Ottonian art|Ottonian artists]]. In Christian Spain, artists adopted [[Islamic art|Islamic decorative]] motifs such as [[Kufic]] letters and [[Moorish arch]]es.{{sfn|Kitzinger|1969|pp=60–77}} ===Military and technology=== [[File:Leo Phokas defeats Hambdan at Adrassos.png|thumb|left|upright=1.3|alt=Eight horsemen in scale armour, each holding a lance chase nine horsemen with clouds wound about their heads|[[Byzantine battle tactics#Cavalry|Byzantine cavalry]] cheasing Muslim horsemen (a miniature from the 12th-century ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'')]] The creation of heavily armoured [[cataphract]]-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the Later Roman military, although the deployment of highly specialised types of troops continued. The various invading tribes had differing emphases on types of soldiers—ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=28–29}} The greatest change in military affairs was the adoption of the Hunnic [[composite bow]] in place of the weaker [[Scythia]]n composite bow.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=30–31}} The Avar [[heavy cavalry]] introduced the use of [[stirrup]]s in Europe,{{sfn|Curta|2019|p=52}} and it was adopted by Byzantine cavalrymen before the end of the {{nowrap|6th century}}.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|p=41}} Another development was the increasing use of [[longsword]]s and the progressive replacement of [[scale armour]] by [[Mail (armour)|mail]] and [[lamellar armour]].{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=34, 39}} The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry, although a large proportion of the armies appear to have been [[mounted infantry]], rather than true cavalry.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=58, 76}} The use of [[Conscription|militia-type levies]] of the free population declined. One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as the ''[[fyrd]]''.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=59, 67}} In military technology, one of the main changes was the reappearance of the [[crossbow]] as a military weapon.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|p=80}} A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the [[horseshoe]], which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain.{{sfn|Nicolle|1996|pp=41, 88–91}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page