Kingdom of Aksum

===Rise of Aksum===
The first historical mention of Axum comes from the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', a trading guide which likely dates to the mid-1st century AD. Axum is mentioned alongside [[Adulis]] and [[Ptolemais Theron|Ptolemais of the Hunts]] as lying within the realm of [[Zoskales]]. The area is described as a primarily producing ivory, as well as tortoise shells. King Zoskales had a Greek education, indicating that Greco-Roman influence was already present at this time.<ref name="sourcebooks.fordham.edu">{{cite web |title=The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century | url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/periplus.asp | website=Fordham University Internet History Sourcebooks, chapters 4 and 5}}</ref> It is evident from the Periplus that, even at this early stage of its history, Axum played a role in the transcontinental [[Indo-Roman trade relations|trade route between Rome and India]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Phillips|first= Jacke|date= 2016|chapter= Aksum, Kingdom of|editor-last= MacKenzie|editor-first= John M.|title= The Encyclopedia of Empire|location= Hoboken|publisher= John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.|pages= 1–2|isbn= 9781118455074}}</ref>

The Aksumite control over [[Adulis]] enabled the exchange of Ethiopian products for foreign imports. Both [[Pliny the Elder]] and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea make reference to this port, situated three days away from the initial ivory market at [[Qohaito|Coloe]], itself five days distant from Aksum. This trade across the Red Sea, spanning from the Roman Empire in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, played a crucial role in Aksum's prosperity. The city thrived by exporting goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned additional items like hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves.  During the 2nd century A.D., [[Ptolemy]]'s geographer referred to Aksum as a powerful kingdom. Both archaeological findings and textual evidence suggest that during this period, a centralized regional polity had emerged in the Aksumite area, characterized by defined social stratification. By the beginning of the 4th century A.D., the Aksumite state had become well-established, featuring urban centers, an official currency with coinage struck in gold, silver, and copper, an intensive agricultural system, and a organized military.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=174}}</ref>

Around 200 A.D., Aksumite ambitions had expanded to Southern Arabia, where Aksum appears to have established itself in [[Al-Maafer District|Al-Maafer]] and engaged in conflicts with Saba and Himyar at various points, forming different alliances with chief kingdoms and tribes. During the early part of the 3rd century, the kings [[GDRT]] and [[ʽDBH]] dispatched military expeditions to the region. Inscriptions from local Arabian dynasties refer to these rulers with the title "nagasi of Aksum and Habashat," and a metal object discovered in eastern Tigray also mentions a certain "GDR ''negus'' of Aksum." Later in the century the ''mlky hhst dtwns wzqrns'' (kings of Habashat [[DTWNS]] and [[ZQRNS]]) are also mentioned fighting in Arabia. According to a Greek inscription in Eritrea known as the ''[[Monumentum Adulitanum]]'' recorded by [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]], in around the mid to late 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260), the Aksumites led by an anonymous king achieved significant territorial expansion in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]], with their influence extending as far as [[Lake Tana]] and the borders of Egypt.<ref>George Hatke, ''Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa'' (New York University Press, 2013), pp. 44. {{ISBN|0-7486-0106-6}}</ref><ref name="dx.doi.org2">{{Cite journal|date=August 1910|title=The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes|journal=Nature|volume=84|issue=2127|pages=133–134|doi=10.1038/084133a0|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=1910Natur..84..133.|hdl=2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t07w6zm1b|s2cid=3942233|url=https://archive.org/details/christiantopogra00cosmuoft|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=175}}</ref>

By the end of the 3rd century A.D., Aksum had gained recognition by the prophet [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] in the ''[[Kephalaia]]'', as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, Persia, and China. As the political influence of Aksum expanded, so did the grandeur of its monuments. Excavations by archaeological expeditions revealed early use of stelae, evolving from plain and rough markers to some of the largest monuments in Africa. The granite stelae in the main cemetery, housing Aksumite royal tombs, transformed from plain to carefully dressed granite, eventually carved to resemble multi-storey towers in a distinctive architectural style. Aksumite architecture featured massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar, bricks for vaulting and arches, and a visible wooden framework, known as "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. Walls inclined inwards and incorporated several recessed bays for added strength. Aksum and other cities, such as [[Adulis]] and [[Matara, Eritrea|Matara]], boasted substantial "palace" buildings employing this architectural style. In the early 6th century, [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] described his visit to Aksum, mentioning the four-towered palace of the Aksumite king, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also featured rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities. These thrones incorporated large panels at the sides and back with inscriptions, attributed to [[Ousanas]], [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]], [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb]], and his son [[Wazeba of Axum|Wazeba]], serving as victory monuments documenting the wars of these kings.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=176}}</ref>

King [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]] became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the 4th century. Ezana's coins and inscriptions make the change from pre-Christian imagery to Christian symbolism around 340 A.D. The conversion to Christianity was one of the most revolutionary events in the history of Ethiopia as it gave Aksum a cultural link with the [[Greco-Roman world|Mediterranean]]. Aksum gained a political link with the [[Byzantine Empire]], which regarded itself as the protector of [[Christendom]]. Three inscriptions on the [[Ezana Stone]] documents the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity and two of his military expeditions against neighboring areas, one inscribed in Greek and the other in Geez. The two expeditions refers to two distinct campaigns, one against the "[[Noba]]", and the other against the [[Beja people|Beja]]. According to the inscription, the Noba were settled somewhere around the Nile and Atbara confluence, where they seemed to have taken over much of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. Yet they did not drive the Kushites away from their heartland, since the inscription states that the Aksumites fought them at the junction of the two rivers. Also mentioned in the inscription are the mysterious "red Noba" against whom an expedition was carried out. This people seems to be settled further north and may be identical with the "other Nobades" mentioned in the inscription of the Nubian king [[Silko]] carved on the wall of the [[Temple of Kalabsha]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=177}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N |pages= 1193}}</ref>

[[File:Aksum obelisk.jpg|thumb|The [[Obelisk of Axum]]]]

[[Kaleb of Axum|King Kaleb]] sent an expedition against the Jewish [[Himyarite Kingdom|Himyarite]] King [[Dhu Nuwas]], who was persecuting the Christian community in Yemen. Kaleb gained widespread acclaim in his era as the conqueror of Yemen. He expanded his royal title to include king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as the coastal plain and highland of Yemen, along with "all their Arabs", highlighting the extensive influence of Aksum across the Red Sea into Arabia. [[Dhu Nuwas]] was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed an Arab viceroy named [[Esimiphaios]] ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), but his rule was short-lived as he was ousted in a coup led by an Aksumite named [[Abraha]] after five years. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. According to [[Procopius]], following Aksum's unsuccessful attempts to remove him, [[Abraha]] continued to govern Yemen through a tribute arrangement with the king of Aksum.<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of the Later Roman Empire|last=Bury|first=J. B.|publisher=Macmillan & Co.|year=1923|pages=325–326|volume=II}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=178}}</ref>

After [[Abraha]]'s death, his son [[Masruq Abraha]] continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Aksum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. Ma'd-Karib first sought help from the Roman Emperor [[Justinian the Great]], but having been denied, he decided to ally with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Persian Emperor]] [[Khosrow I]], triggering the [[Aksumite–Persian wars]]. Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under commander [[Vahrez]] to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with the [[Siege of Sana'a (570)|Siege of Sana'a]], capital of Aksumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq's death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Aksumites. The Persian general [[Vahrez]] led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to [[Stuart Munro-Hay]], these wars may have been Aksum's swan-song as a great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |pages=178}}</ref>