Earth

=== After formation ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and oceans were formed by [[volcanism|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}</ref> Water vapor from these sources [[Origin of water on Earth|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.<ref name="watersource" /> Sufficient water to fill the oceans may have been on Earth since it formed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Piani|first1=Laurette|last2=Marrocchi|first2=Yves|last3=Rigaudier|first3=Thomas|last4=Vacher|first4=Lionel G.|last5=Thomassin|first5=Dorian|last6=Marty|first6=Bernard|display-authors=1|date=2020|title=Earth's water may have been inherited from material similar to enstatite chondrite meteorites|url=https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba1948|journal=Science|language=en|volume=369|issue=6507|pages=1110–1113|doi=10.1126/science.aba1948|issn=0036-8075|pmid=32855337|bibcode=2020Sci...369.1110P|s2cid=221342529}}</ref> In this model, atmospheric [[greenhouse gas]]es kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun [[Faint young Sun paradox|had only 70%]] of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].<ref name="asp2002" /> By {{val|3.5|u=Ga}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].<ref name="physorg20100304" />

[[File:NASA-EarlyEarth-PaleOrangeDot-20190802.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|''Pale orange dot'', an artist's impression of [[Early Earth]], featuring its tinted orange [[methane]]-rich [[Prebiotic atmosphere|early atmosphere]]<ref name="Trainer Pavlov DeWitt Jimenez pp. 18035–18042">{{cite journal |last1=Trainer |first1=Melissa G. |last2=Pavlov |first2=Alexander A. |last3=DeWitt |first3=H. Langley |last4=Jimenez |first4=Jose L. |last5=McKay |first5=Christopher P. |last6=Toon |first6=Owen B. |last7=Tolbert |first7=Margaret A. |display-authors=1 |date=28 November 2006 |title=Organic haze on Titan and the early Earth |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=103 |issue=48 |pages=18035–18042 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0608561103 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1838702 |pmid=17101962 |doi-access=free}}</ref>|center]]

As the molten outer layer of Earth cooled it [[Phase transition|formed]] the first solid [[Earth's crust|crust]], which is thought to have been [[mafic]] in composition. The first [[continental crust]], which was more [[felsic]] in composition, formed by the partial melting of this mafic crust.<ref name="comp">{{cite journal |title=The composition of the Earth |year=1995 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0009254194001404 |doi=10.1016/0009-2541(94)00140-4 |last1=McDonough |first1=W.F. |last2=Sun |first2=S.-s. |journal=Chemical Geology |volume=120 |issue=3–4 |pages=223–253 |bibcode=1995ChGeo.120..223M }}</ref> The presence of grains of the [[Hadean zircon|mineral zircon of Hadean age]] in [[Eoarchean]] [[sedimentary rock]]s suggests that at least some felsic crust existed as early as {{val|4.4|u=Ga}}, only {{val|140|u=[[Megaannum|Ma]]}} after Earth's formation.<ref name="science310_5756_1947" /> There are two main models of how this initial small volume of continental crust evolved to reach its current abundance:<ref name="williams_santosh2004" /> (1) a relatively steady growth up to the present day,<ref name="science164_1229" /> which is supported by the radiometric dating of continental crust globally and (2) an initial rapid growth in the volume of continental crust during the [[Archean]], forming the bulk of the continental crust that now exists,<ref name="ajes38_613" /><ref name="tp322_19" /> which is supported by isotopic evidence from [[hafnium]] in [[zircon]]s and [[neodymium]] in sedimentary rocks. The two models and the data that support them can be reconciled by large-scale [[crustal recycling|recycling of the continental crust]], particularly during the early stages of Earth's history.<ref name="Dhuime_etal_2018" />

New continental crust forms as a result of [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, tectonic forces have caused areas of continental crust to group together to form [[supercontinent]]s that have subsequently broken apart. At approximately {{val|750|u=Ma}}, one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] at {{val|600|–|540|u=Ma}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also began to break apart at {{val|180|u=Ma}}.<ref name="bradley_2011" />

The most recent pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Ma}},<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |website=Ology|publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}</ref> and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Ma}}.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first1=Thomas B. |last1=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |display-authors=1|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[High latitude|High-]] and [[middle latitude|middle-latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every 21,000, 41,000 and 100,000 years.<ref name="psc" /> The [[Last Glacial Period]], colloquially called the "last ice age", covered large parts of the continents, to the middle latitudes, in ice and ended about 11,700 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379110003197 |title=The potential of New Zealand kauri (Agathis australis) for testing the synchronicity of abrupt climate change during the Last Glacial Interval (60,000–11,700 years ago) |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |publisher=Elsevier |last1=Turner |first1=Chris S.M. |display-authors=et al |year=2010 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.08.017 |volume=29 |issue=27–28 |pages=3677–3682 |bibcode=2010QSRv...29.3677T |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref>