Crusades

===First Crusade===
{{main|First Crusade}}
[[File:Peter the Hermit.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|250px|right|Miniature of [[Peter the Hermit]] leading the [[People's Crusade]] (''[[Abreujamen de las estorias]]'', MS [[Egerton Collection|Egerton]] 1500, Avignon, 14th{{nbsp}}century)|alt=14th-century miniature of Peter the Hermit leading the People's Crusade]]

In 1095, Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] requested military aid from [[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Piacenza]]. He was probably expecting a small number of mercenaries he could direct. Alexios had restored the Empire's finances and authority but still faced numerous foreign enemies. Later that year at the [[Council of Clermont]], Urban raised the issue again and preached a crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|p=34}}</ref> Almost immediately, the French priest [[Peter the Hermit]] gathered thousands of mostly poor in the [[People's Crusade]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=20–21}}</ref> Traveling through Germany, German bands massacred Jewish communities in the [[Rhineland massacres]] during wide-ranging anti-Jewish activities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chazan|1996|pp=28–34}}</ref> Jews were perceived to be as much an enemy as Muslims. They were held responsible for the [[crucifixion]], and were more immediately visible. People wondered why they should travel thousands of miles to fight non-believers when there were many closer to home.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman|2006|pp=99–100}}</ref> Quickly after leaving Byzantine-controlled territory on their journey to [[Nicaea]] these crusaders were annihilated in a Turkish ambush at the [[Battle of Civetot]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|p=41}}</ref>

Conflict with Urban II meant that King [[Philip I of France]] and [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Henry{{nbsp}}IV]] declined participation. Aristocrats from France, western Germany, the [[Low Countries]], [[Languedoc]] and Italy led independent contingents in loose, fluid arrangements based on bonds of lordship, family, ethnicity and language. The elder statesman [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse]] was foremost, rivaled by the relatively poor but martial [[Italo-Norman]] [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] and his nephew [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]]. [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] and his brother [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] and forces from [[Lorraine]], [[Lotharingia]], and [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]] also joined. These five princes were pivotal to the campaign, which was augmented by a northern French army led by [[Robert Curthose]], Count [[Stephen, Count of Blois|Stephen II of Blois]], and Count [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert II of Flanders]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=43–47}}</ref> The total number may have reached as many as 100,000 people including non-combatants. They traveled eastward by land to Constantinople where they were cautiously welcomed by the emperor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=30–31}}</ref> Alexios persuaded many of the princes to pledge allegiance to him and that their first objective should be Nicaea, the capital of the [[Sultanate of Rum]]. Sultan [[Kilij Arslan I|Kilij Arslan]] left the city to resolve a territorial dispute, enabling its capture after the [[siege of Nicaea]] and a Byzantine naval assault in the high point of Latin and Greek co-operation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=52–56}}</ref>

[[File:Byzantium1081ADlightpurple-1-+Antioch.png|thumb|250px|Southeastern Europe, Asia Minor and Syria before the First Crusade]]The first experience of Turkish tactics, using lightly armoured mounted archers, occurred when an advanced party led by Bohemond and Robert was ambushed at the [[Battle of Dorylaeum (1097)|battle of Dorylaeum]]. The Normans resisted for hours before the arrival of the main army caused a Turkish withdrawal.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=57–59}}</ref> The army marched for three months to the former Byzantine city [[Antioch]], that had been in Muslim control since 1084. Starvation, thirst and disease reduced numbers, combined with Baldwin's decision to leave with 100 knights and their followers to carve out [[County of Edessa|his own territory in Edessa]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=59–61}}</ref> The [[siege of Antioch]] lasted eight months. The crusaders lacked the resources to fully invest the city. The residents lacked the means to repel the invaders. Then Bohemond persuaded a guard in the city to open a gate. The crusaders entered, massacring the Muslim inhabitants and many Christians amongst the Greek Orthodox, Syrian and Armenian communities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=72–73}}</ref> A force to recapture the city was raised by [[Kerbogha]], the effective ruler of [[Mosul]]. The Byzantines did not march to the assistance of the crusaders after the deserting Stephen of Blois told them the cause was lost. Alexius retreated from [[Philomelium]], where he received Stephen's report, to Constantinople. The Greeks were never truly forgiven for this perceived betrayal and Stephen was branded a coward.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=74–75}}</ref> Losing numbers through desertion and starvation in the besieged city, the crusaders attempted a negotiated surrender but were rejected. Bohemond recognised that the only option was open combat and launched a counterattack. Despite superior numbers, Kerbogha's army {{mdash}} which was divided into factions and surprised by the Crusaders commitment{{mdash}} retreated and abandoned the siege.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge |2012|pp=72–82}}</ref> 
Raymond [[Arqa#Crusades period|besieged Arqa]] in February 1099 and sent an embassy to [[al-Afdal Shahanshah]], the vizier of [[Fatimid dynasty|Fatimid Egypt]], seeking a treaty. Adhemar died, leaving the crusade without a spiritual leader. Raymond failed to capture Arqa and in May led the remaining army south along the coast. Bohemond retained Antioch and remained, despite his pledge to return it to the Byzantines. Local rulers offered little resistance, opting for peace in return for provisions. The Frankish envoys returned accompanied by Fatimid representatives. This brought the information that the Fatimids had recaptured Jerusalem. The Franks offered to partition conquered territory in return for the city. Refusal of the offer made it imperative that the crusade reach Jerusalem before the Fatimids made it defensible.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=82–83, 87, 89}}

The first attack on the city begun on 7 June 1099 failed, and the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|siege of Jerusalem]] became a stalemate, before the arrival of craftsmen and supplies transported by the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] to [[Jaffa]] tilted the balance. Two large siege engines were constructed and the one commanded by Godfrey breached the walls on 15 July. For two days the crusaders massacred the inhabitants and pillaged the city. Historians now believe the accounts of the numbers killed have been exaggerated, but this narrative of massacre did much to cement the crusaders' reputation for barbarism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=96–103}}</ref> Godfrey secured the Frankish position by defeating an Egyptian force at the [[Battle of Ascalon]] on 12 August.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=104–106}}</ref> Most of the crusaders considered their pilgrimage complete and returned to Europe. When it came to the future governance of the city it was Godfrey who took leadership and the title of ''[[Title of Godfrey of Bouillon#Advocate, or Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri|Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri]],'' Defender of the Holy Sepulchre. The presence of troops from Lorraine ended the possibility that Jerusalem would be an ecclesiastical domain and the claims of Raymond.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jotischky|2004|p=62}}</ref> Godfrey was left with a mere 300 knights and 2,000 infantry. Tancred also remained with the ambition to gain a princedom of his own.<ref name="Asbridge 2012 106">{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|p=106}}</ref>

The Islamic world seems to have barely registered the crusade; certainly, there is limited written evidence before 1130. This may be in part due to a reluctance to relate Muslim failure, but it is more likely to be the result of cultural misunderstanding. Al-Afdal Shahanshah and the Muslim world mistook the crusaders for the latest in a long line of Byzantine mercenaries, not religiously motivated warriors intent on conquest and settlement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=111–113}}</ref> The Muslim world was divided between the Sunnis of Syria and Iraq and the Shi'ite Fatimids of Egypt. The Turks had found unity unachievable since the death of Sultan Malik-Shah in 1092, with rival rulers in [[Damascus]] and [[Aleppo]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=21–22}}</ref> In addition, in Baghdad, Seljuk sultan [[Barkiyaruq]] and Abbasid caliph [[al-Mustazhir]] were engaged in a power struggle. This gave the Crusaders a crucial opportunity to consolidate without any pan-Islamic counter-attack.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|p=114}}</ref>