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AdvancedSpecial charactersHelpHeadingLevel 2Level 3Level 4Level 5FormatInsertLatinLatin extendedIPASymbolsGreekGreek extendedCyrillicArabicArabic extendedHebrewBanglaTamilTeluguSinhalaDevanagariGujaratiThaiLaoKhmerCanadian AboriginalRunesÁáÀàÂâÄäÃãǍǎĀāĂ㥹ÅåĆćĈĉÇçČčĊċĐđĎďÉéÈèÊêËëĚěĒēĔĕĖėĘęĜĝĢģĞğĠġĤĥĦħÍíÌìÎîÏïĨĩǏǐĪīĬĭİıĮįĴĵĶķĹĺĻļĽľŁłŃńÑñŅņŇňÓóÒòÔôÖöÕõǑǒŌōŎŏǪǫŐőŔŕŖŗŘřŚśŜŝŞşŠšȘșȚțŤťÚúÙùÛûÜüŨũŮůǓǔŪūǖǘǚǜŬŭŲųŰűŴŵÝýŶŷŸÿȲȳŹźŽžŻżÆæǢǣØøŒœßÐðÞþƏəFormattingLinksHeadingsListsFilesDiscussionReferencesDescriptionWhat you typeWhat you getItalic''Italic text''Italic textBold'''Bold text'''Bold textBold & italic'''''Bold & italic text'''''Bold & italic textDescriptionWhat you typeWhat you getReferencePage text.<ref>[https://www.example.org/ Link text], additional text.</ref>Page text.[1]Named referencePage text.<ref name="test">[https://www.example.org/ Link text]</ref>Page text.[2]Additional use of the same referencePage text.<ref name="test" />Page text.[2]Display references<references />↑ Link text, additional text.↑ Link text===National issues=== [[File:ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg|thumb|left|Colored Sailors room in World War I]] The situation for blacks outside the South was somewhat better (in most states they could vote and have their children educated, though they still faced discrimination in housing and jobs). In 1900 Reverend Matthew Anderson, speaking at the annual [[Hampton Negro Conference]] in Virginia, said that "...the lines along most of the avenues of wage-earning are more rigidly drawn in the North than in the South. There seems to be an apparent effort throughout the North, especially in the cities to debar the colored worker from all the avenues of higher remunerative labor, which makes it more difficult to improve his economic condition even than in the South."<ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Hampton Negro Conference|chapter=The Economic Aspect of the Negro Problem|first=Anderson|last=Matthew|series=Hampton bulletinno. 9–10, 12–16|editor1-last=Browne |editor1-first=Hugh |editor2-last=Kruse |editor2-first=Edwina |editor4-last=Moton |editor3-last=Walker |editor3-first=Thomas C. |editor4-first=Robert Russa |editor4-link=Robert Russa Moton |editor5-last=Wheelock |editor5-first=Frederick D. |publisher=Hampton Institute Press|location=[[Hampton, Virginia]]|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gkQ9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA39|hdl=2027/chi.14025588?urlappend=%3Bseq=43|volume=4|year=1900|page=39}}</ref> From 1910 to 1970, blacks sought better lives by migrating north and west out of the South. A total of nearly seven million blacks left the South in what was known as the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]], most during and after World War II. So many people migrated that the demographics of some previously black-majority states changed to a white majority (in combination with other developments). The rapid influx of blacks altered the demographics of Northern and Western cities; happening at a period of expanded European, Hispanic, and Asian immigration, it added to social competition and tensions, with the new migrants and immigrants battling for a place in jobs and housing. [[Image:chicago-race-riot.jpg|thumb|right|A white gang looking for blacks during the [[Chicago race riot of 1919]]]] Reflecting social tensions after World War I, as veterans struggled to return to the workforce and labor unions were organizing, the [[Red Summer|Red Summer of 1919]] was marked by hundreds of deaths and higher casualties across the U.S. as a result of white race riots against blacks that took place in more than three dozen cities, such as the [[Chicago race riot of 1919]] and the [[Omaha race riot of 1919]]. Urban problems such as crime and disease were blamed on the large influx of Southern blacks to cities in the north and west, based on stereotypes of rural southern African-Americans. Overall, blacks in Northern and Western cities experienced [[Racism in the United States|systemic discrimination]] in a plethora of aspects of life. Within employment, economic opportunities for blacks were routed to the lowest status and restrictive in potential mobility. Within the housing market, stronger discriminatory measures were used in correlation to the influx, resulting in a mix of "targeted violence, [[restrictive covenants]], [[redlining]] and [[racial steering]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tolnay |first=Stewart |s2cid=145520215 |title=The African American 'Great Migration' and Beyond |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |year=2003 |volume=29 |pages=218–221 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100009 |jstor=30036966}}</ref> The Great Migration resulted in many African Americans becoming urbanized, and they began to realign from the Republican to the Democratic Party, especially because of opportunities under the [[New Deal]] of the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] administration during the Great Depression in the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/BAIC/Historical-Essays/Keeping-the-Faith/Party-Realignment--New-Deal/ |title=Party Realignment and the New Deal |agency=US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives |access-date=May 31, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530121202/http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/BAIC/Historical-Essays/Keeping-the-Faith/Party-Realignment--New-Deal/ |archive-date=May 30, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Substantially under pressure from African-American supporters who began the [[March on Washington Movement]], President Roosevelt issued the first federal order banning discrimination and created the [[Fair Employment Practice Committee]]. After both World Wars, black veterans of the military pressed for full civil rights and often led activist movements. In 1948, President [[Harry Truman]] issued [[Executive Order 9981]], which ended [[Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces|segregation in the military]].<ref name=trumanlibrary>{{cite web|title=Executive Order 9981|url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/9981.htm|publisher=Harry S. Truman Library and Museum|access-date=May 18, 2019|archive-date=January 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122055428/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/9981.htm}}</ref> [[File:We want white tenants.jpg|thumb|White tenants seeking to prevent blacks from moving into the [[Public housing in Detroit|housing project]] erected this sign, [[Detroit]], 1942]] [[Housing segregation]] became a nationwide problem following the Great Migration of black people out of the South. [[Covenant (law)#Exclusionary covenants|Racial covenants]] were employed by many [[real estate development|real estate developers]] to "protect" entire [[subdivision (land)|subdivisions]], with the primary intent to keep "[[white people|white]]" neighborhoods "white". Ninety percent of the housing projects built in the years following World War II were racially restricted by such covenants.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kennedy|first=Stetson|url=http://www.stetsonkennedy.com/jim_crow_guide/index.html|title=Jim Crow Guide: The Way it Was|year=1959|chapter=Who May Live Where|chapter-url=http://www.stetsonkennedy.com/jim_crow_guide/chapter6.htm}}</ref> Cities known for their widespread use of racial covenants include [[Chicago]], [[Baltimore]], [[Detroit]], [[Milwaukee]],<ref>{{cite web|author1=Michelle Maternowski |author2= Joy Powers|date=March 3, 2017|title=How Did Metro Milwaukee Become So Segregated?|url=https://www.wuwm.com/post/how-did-metro-milwaukee-become-so-segregated|website=WUWM.com|ref=WUWM 89.7 Milwaukee NPR}}</ref> [[Los Angeles]], [[Seattle]], and [[St. Louis]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Racial Restrictive Covenants: Enforcing Neighborhood Segregation in Seattle – Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project |url=https://depts.washington.edu/civilr/covenants_report.htm |access-date=December 5, 2020 |agency=University of Washington}}</ref> {{blockquote|Said premises shall not be rented, leased, or conveyed to, or occupied by, any person other than of the white or Caucasian race.|Racial covenant for a home in Beverly Hills, California.<ref>{{cite news |title=Racist language is still woven into home deeds across America. Erasing it isn't easy, and some don't want to |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/15/us/racist-deeds-covenants/index.html|date=February 15, 2020|first=Nick|last=Watt |author2=Jack Hannah |access-date=January 26, 2021 |agency=CNN}}</ref>}} While many whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics toward black people, many other whites migrated to more racially homogeneous [[suburban]] or [[exurban]] regions, a process known as [[white flight]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Seligman|first=Amanda|title=Block by block: neighborhoods and public policy on Chicago's West Side|year=2005|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-74663-0|pages=213–14}}</ref> From the 1930s to the 1960s, the National Association of Real Estate Boards (NAREB) issued guidelines that specified that a realtor "should never be instrumental in introducing to a neighborhood a character or property or occupancy, members of any race or nationality, or any individual whose presence will be clearly detrimental to property values in a neighborhood." The result was the development of all-black [[ghettos]] in the North and West, where much housing was older, as well as South.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.civilrights.org/publications/reports/fairhousing/historical.html |title=Future of Fair Housing: How We Got Here |access-date=July 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160707035121/http://www.civilrights.org/publications/reports/fairhousing/historical.html |archive-date=July 7, 2016 }}</ref> The first [[anti-miscegenation law]] was passed by the [[Maryland General Assembly]] in 1691, criminalizing [[interracial marriage]].<ref name="Anti-miscegenation"/> In a speech in [[Charleston, Illinois]] in 1858, [[Abraham Lincoln]] stated, "I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people".<ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen A. |last=Douglas|title=The Complete Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858 |date=1991 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |page=235}}</ref> By the late 1800s, 38 US states had anti-miscegenation statutes.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation"/> By 1924, the ban on interracial marriage was still in force in 29 states.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation"/> While interracial marriage had been legal in California since 1948, in 1957 actor [[Sammy Davis Jr.]] faced a backlash for his involvement with white actress [[Kim Novak]].<ref name="Smithsonian" /> Davis briefly married a black dancer in 1958 to protect himself from mob violence.<ref name="Smithsonian">Lanzendorfer, Joy (August 9, 2017) [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/hollywood-loved-sammy-davis-jr-until-he-dated-white-movie-star-180964395/ "Hollywood Loved Sammy Davis Jr. Until He Dated a White Movie Star"], ''[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]'' Retrieved February 23, 2021.</ref> In 1958, officers in [[Virginia]] entered the home of [[Loving v. Virginia#Plaintiffs|Mildred and Richard Loving]] and dragged them out of bed for living together as an interracial couple, on the basis that "any white person intermarry with a colored person"— or vice versa—each party "shall be guilty of a felony" and face prison terms of five years.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation">{{cite news |title=Eugenics, Race, and Marriage |url=https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/eugenics-race-and-marriage |access-date=February 23, 2021 |website=Facing History.org}}</ref> Invigorated by the victory of ''Brown'' and frustrated by the lack of immediate practical effect, private citizens increasingly rejected gradualist, legalistic approaches as the primary tool to bring about [[Desegregation in the United States|desegregation]]. They were faced with "[[massive resistance]]" in the South by proponents of racial segregation and [[disfranchisement|voter suppression]]. In defiance, African-American activists adopted a combined strategy of [[direct action]], [[nonviolence]], [[nonviolent resistance]], and many events described as [[civil disobedience]], giving rise to the civil rights movement of 1954 to 1968. [[A. Philip Randolph]] had planned a march on Washington, D.C., in 1941 to support demands for elimination of [[employment discrimination]] in the [[Defence industry|defense industry]]; he called off the march when the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] administration met the demand by issuing [[Executive Order 8802]], which barred racial discrimination and created an [[Fair Employment Practice Committee|agency]] to oversee compliance with the order.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Clawson|first1=Laura|title=A. Philip Randolph, the union leader who led the March on Washington|url=http://www.dailykos.com/story/2013/08/28/1234481/-A-Philip-Randolph-the-union-leader-who-led-the-March-on-Washington#|date=August 28, 2013|access-date=May 6, 2015|website=Daily Kos|publisher=Daily Kos Group}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page