Bodhisattva

==In Mahāyāna==
===Early Mahāyāna===
[[File:Standing Bodhisattva Maitreya (Buddha of the Future).jpg|thumb|right|[[Greco-Buddhist art|Greco-Buddhist]] standing Maitreya (3rd century), [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York City|New York]]]]
[[File:Buddha-Vajrapani-Herakles.JPG|thumb|right|Greco-Buddhist [[Vajrapani|Vajrapāni]] (the protector of the Buddha) resembling [[Heracles]], second-century]]
[[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] Buddhism (often also called ''Bodhisattvayāna'', "Bodhisattva Vehicle") is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva.<ref name="Nattier, Jan 2003 p. 174">Nattier, Jan (2003), ''A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra'': p. 174</ref> This path was seen as higher and nobler than becoming an [[arhat]] or a [[Pratyekabuddha|solitary Buddha]]. Hayal notes that Sanskrit sources generally depict the bodhisattva path as reaching a higher goal (i.e. ''anuttara-samyak-sambodhi'') than the goal of the path of the "disciples" ([[śrāvaka]]s), which is the [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|nirvana]] attained by arhats.<ref name=":2">Dayal 1970, p. 11.</ref> For example, the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' states:<blockquote>"To the sravakas, he preached the doctrine which is associated with the four Noble Truths and leads to Dependent Origination. It aims at transcending birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress of mind and weariness; and it ends in nirvana. But, to the great being, the bodhisattva, he preached the doctrine, which is associated with the six perfections and which ends in the Knowledge of the Omniscient One after the attainment of the supreme and perfect bodhi."<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>According to Peter Skilling, the Mahayana movement began when "at an uncertain point, let us say in the first century BCE, groups of monks, nuns, and lay-followers began to devote themselves exclusively to the Bodhisatva vehicle."<ref name=":23"/> These Mahayanists universalized the bodhisattvayana as a path which was open to everyone and which was taught for all beings to follow. This was in contrast to the Nikaya schools, which held that the bodhisattva path was only for a rare set of individuals.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":9" /> Indian Mahayanists preserved and promoted a set of texts called Vaipulya ("Extensive") sutras (later called [[Mahayana sutras]]).<ref>Werner et al. 2013, p. 84.</ref>

Mahayana sources like the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' also claim that arhats that have reached nirvana have not truly finished their spiritual quest, for they still have not attained the superior goal of sambodhi ([[Buddhahood]]) and thus must continue to strive until they reach this goal.<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 14.</ref>

The ''{{IAST|[[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]}}'', one of the earliest known Mahayana texts, contains a simple and brief definition for the term ''bodhisattva'', which is also the earliest known Mahāyāna definition.<ref>Mall, Linnart. ''Studies in the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita and Other Essays.'' Motilal Banarsidass. 2005. pp. 53–54.</ref><ref>Hirakawa, Akira (2007). ''[https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030 A history of Indian Buddhism: from Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna].'' Motilal Banarsidass. p. 297.</ref> This definition is given as the following: "Because he has [[bodhi]] as his aim, a bodhisattva-[[mahāsattva]] is so called."<ref>Conze, Edward. ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary.'' Grey Fox Press. 2001. p. 89.</ref>

Mahayana sutras also depict the bodhisattva as a being which, because they want to reach Buddhahood for the sake of all beings, is more loving and compassionate than the sravaka (who only wishes to end their own suffering). Thus, another major difference between the bodhisattva and the arhat is that the bodhisattva practices the path for the good of others (''par-ārtha''), due to their [[bodhicitta]], while the sravakas do so for their own good (''sv-ārtha'') and thus, do not have [[bodhicitta]] (which is compassionately focused on others).<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 17.</ref>

Mahayana bodhisattvas were not just abstract models for Buddhist practice, but also developed as distinct figures which were venerated by Indian Buddhists. These included figures like [[Manjushri]] and [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokiteshvara]], which are personifications of the basic virtues of wisdom and compassion respectively and are the two most important bodhisattvas in Mahayana.<ref>Dayal 1970, pp. 33-37, 46.</ref> The development of bodhisattva devotion parallels the development of the Hindu [[bhakti movement]]. Indeed, Dayal sees the development of Indian bodhisattva cults as a Buddhist reaction to the growth of bhakti centered religion in India which helped to popularize and reinvigorate Indian Buddhism.<ref>Dayal 1970, pp. 33-37.</ref>

Some Mahayana sutras promoted another revolutionary doctrinal turn, claiming that the three vehicles of the ''[[Śrāvakayāna]], [[Pratyekabuddhayāna]]'' and the ''[[Bodhisattvayāna]]'' were really just one vehicle (''[[Ekayāna|ekayana]]''). This is most famously promoted in the ''[[Lotus Sūtra]]'' which claims that the very idea of three separate vehicles is just an ''[[upaya]]'', a skillful device invented by the Buddha to get beings of various abilities on the path. But ultimately, it will be revealed to them that there is only one vehicle, the ''[[Ekayāna|ekayana]]'', which ends in Buddhahood.<ref>Silk, Jonathan; Hinüber, Oskar von; Eltschinger, Vincent; eds. (2016). "Lotus Sutra", in Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Volume 1: Literature and Languages. Leiden: Brill. p.&nbsp;147</ref>

=== Mature scholastic Mahāyāna ===
[[File:MET 38 DP310516R3 61D.jpg|thumb|Bengali Sculpture of Manjushri, the bodhisattva of wisdom, 11th century]]
[[Image:Liao Dynasty Avalokitesvara Statue Clear.jpeg|thumb|right|Wood carving of [[Avalokiteśvara]]. [[Liao dynasty|Liao China]], 907–1125]]
[[Image:Twenty-Five Bodhisattvas Descending from Heaven, c. 1300.jpg|thumb|''Twenty-five Bodhisattvas Descending from Heaven''. Japanese painting, {{circa}}{{nbsp}}1300]]
Classical Indian mahayanists held that the only sutras which teach the bodhisattva vehicle are the [[Mahayana sutras]]. Thus, [[Nagarjuna]] writes "the subjects based on the deeds of Bodhisattvas were not mentioned in [non-Mahāyāna] sūtras."<ref name=":20">Werner et al. 2013, p. 32.</ref> They also held that the bodhisattva path was superior to the śrāvaka vehicle and so the bodhisattva vehicle is the "great vehicle" (mahayana) due to its greater aspiration to save others, while the śrāvaka vehicle is the "small" or "inferior" vehicle ([[hinayana]]). Thus, [[Asanga]] argues in his ''[[Mahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika|Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra]]'' that the two vehicles differ in numerous ways, such as intention, teaching, employment (i.e., means), support, and the time that it takes to reach the goal.<ref name=":20" />

Over time, Mahayana Buddhists developed mature systematized doctrines about the bodhisattva. The authors of the various [[Madhyamaka]] treatises often presented the view of the [[Ekayāna|''ekayana'']], and thus held that all beings can become bodhisattvas. The texts and sutras associated with the [[Yogachara|Yogacara]] school developed a different theory of three separate ''gotras'' (families, lineages), that inherently predisposed a person to either the vehicle of the ''[[arhat]]'', ''[[pratyekabuddha]]'' or [[Buddhahood|''samyak-saṃbuddha'']] (fully self-awakened one).<ref name=":1">Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, ''Religion Compass'' 4/2 (2010): 66–74, {{doi|10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x}}</ref> For the yogacarins then, only some beings (those who have the "bodhisattva lineage") can enter the bodhisattva path.<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 52.</ref> In East Asian Buddhism, the view of the one vehicle (''ekayana'') which holds that all Buddhist teachings are really part of a single path, is the standard view.<ref>Kawamura (ed) 1981, p. 171.</ref>

The term bodhisattva was also used in a broader sense by later authors. According to the eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopher [[Haribhadra (Buddhist philosopher)|Haribhadra]], the term "bodhisattva" can refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards ''[[Enlightenment in Buddhism|bodhi]]''. Therefore, the specific term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a ''mahāsattva'' (great being) ''bodhisattva''.<ref name=":11">Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, p. 55.</ref> According to [[Atiśa]]'s 11th century ''[[Bodhipathapradīpa]],'' the central defining feature of a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is the universal aspiration to end suffering for all sentient beings, which is termed ''[[bodhicitta]]'' (the mind set on awakening).<ref name=":13">Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, pp. 195–196.</ref>

The bodhisattva doctrine went through a significant transformation during the development of Buddhist tantra, also known as [[Vajrayana]]. This movement developed new ideas and texts which introduced new bodhisattvas and re-interpreted old ones in new forms, developed in elaborate [[mandala]]s for them and introduced new practices which made use of [[mantra]]s, [[mudra]]s and other tantric elements.

=== Entering the bodhisattva path ===
[[Image:Ajanta Padmapani.jpg|thumb|Mural of bodhisattva [[Padmapani]] in [[Ajanta Caves]]. India, 5th century]]
[[Image:The Buddhist Goddess Shyama Tara (Green Tara) Attended by Sita Tara (White Tara) and Bhrikuti LACMA M.84.32.1a-d.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tara (Buddhism)|Green Tara]] attended by [[Tara (Buddhism)|White Tara]] and Bhrikuti, India, Madhya Pradesh, Sirpur, c. 8th century]]
According to David Drewes, "Mahayana sutras unanimously depict the path beginning with the first arising of the thought of becoming a Buddha (''prathamacittotpāda''), or the initial arising of ''[[bodhicitta]]'', typically aeons before one first receives a Buddha's prediction, and apply the term bodhisattva from this point."<ref name=":0" /> The ''[[Ten Stages Sutra]]'', for example, explains that the arising of bodhicitta is the first step in the bodhisattva's career.<ref name="auto2">Dayal 1970, p. 50.</ref> Thus, the arising of bodhicitta, the compassionate mind aimed at awakening for the sake of all beings, is a central defining element of the bodhisattva path.<ref>Dayal 1970, pp. 60-61.</ref><ref>Williams, Paul (2008). ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'', p. 195. Routledge.</ref>

Another key element of the bodhisattva path is the concept of a bodhisattva's ''[[Bodhisattva vow|praṇidhāna]]'' - which can mean a resolution, resolve, vow, prayer, wish, aspiration and determination.<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 64.</ref> This more general idea of an earnest wish or solemn resolve which is closely connected with bodhicitta (and is the cause and result of bodhicitta) eventually developed into the idea that bodhisattvas take certain formulaic "[[bodhisattva vow]]s."<ref name=":4">Dayal 1970, p. 65.</ref> One of the earliest of these formulas is found in the ''{{IAST|[[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]}}'' and states:<blockquote>We having crossed (the stream of samsara), may we help living beings to cross! We being liberated, may we liberate others! We being comforted, may we comfort others! We being finally released, may we release others!<ref name=":4" /> </blockquote>Other sutras contain longer and more complex formulas, such as the ten vows found in the ''[[Ten Stages Sutra]].''<ref>Dayal 1970, pp. 65-66.</ref>

Mahayana sources also discuss the importance of a Buddha's prediction (''vyākaraṇa'') of a bodhisattva's future Buddhahood. This is seen as an important step along the bodhisattva path.<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 67.</ref>

Later Mahayana Buddhists also developed specific rituals and devotional acts for which helped to develop various preliminary qualities, such as faith, worship, prayer, and confession, that lead to the arising of ''bodhicitta.''<ref name="auto2"/> These elements, which constitute a kind of preliminary preparation for bodhicitta, are found in the "seven part worship" (''saptāṇgapūjā'' or ''saptavidhā anuttarapūjā'').<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 54.</ref> This ritual form is visible in the works of [[Shantideva]] (8th century) and includes:<ref>Dayal 1970, pp. 54-57.</ref>
* ''Vandana'' (obeisance, bowing down)
* ''[[Puja (Buddhism)|Puja]]'' (worship of the Buddhas)
* ''Sarana-gamana'' (going for [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]])
* ''Papadesana'' (confession of bad deeds)
* ''Punyanumodana'' (rejoicing in merit of the good deeds of oneself and others) 
* ''Adhyesana'' (prayer, entreaty) and ''yacana'' (supplication) – request to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to continue preaching Dharma
* ''Atmabhavadi-parityagah'' (surrender) and ''[[Transfer of merit|pariṇāmanā]]'' (the transfer of one's Merit to the welfare of others)

After these preliminaries have been accomplished, then the aspirant is seen as being ready to give rise to bodhicitta, often through the recitation of a [[bodhisattva vow]].<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 59.</ref> Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism encourages everyone to give rise to bodhicitta and ceremonially take bodhisattva vows. With these vows and precepts, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all [[Sentient beings (Buddhism)|sentient beings]] by practicing the transcendent virtues or [[Pāramitā|paramitas]].<ref>''The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others'', pp. 4–12, [[Tharpa Publications]] (2nd. ed., 1995) {{ISBN|978-0-948006-50-0}}</ref>

In Mahāyāna, bodhisattvas are often not Buddhist monks and are former lay practitioners.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Storm |first=Rachel |title=Myths & Legends of India, Egypt, China & Japan |publisher=Lorenz Books |year=2011 |editor-last=Sudell |editor-first=Helen |edition=2nd |location=Wigston, Leicestershire |pages=114}}</ref>

=== The practice of the bodhisattva ===
After a being has entered the path by giving rise to bodhicitta, they must make effort in the practice or conduct (''caryā'') of the bodhisattvas, which includes all the duties, virtues and practices that bodhisattvas must accomplish to attain Buddhahood.<ref name=":5">Dayal 1970, pp. 75-76.</ref> An important early Mahayana source for the practice of the bodhisattva is the ''Bodhisattvapiṭaka sūtra,'' a major sutra found in the ''[[Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra|Mahāratnakūṭa]]'' collection which was widely cited by various sources. According to Ulrich Pagel, this text is "one of the longest works on the bodhisattva in Mahayana literature" and thus provides extensive information on the topic bodhisattva training, especially [[Pāramitā|the perfections (''pāramitā'')]].<ref name=":26" /> Pagel also argues that this text was quite influential on later Mahayana writings which discuss the bodhisattva and thus was "of fundamental importance to the evolution of the bodhisattva doctrine."<ref>Pagel 1992, p. 12</ref> Other sutras in the ''Mahāratnakūṭa'' collection are also important sources for the bodhisattva path.<ref name=":26">Pagel 1992, pp. 9-10.</ref>

According to Pagel, the basic outline of the bodhisattva practice in the ''Bodhisattvapiṭaka'' is outlined in a passage which states "the path to enlightenment comprises benevolence towards all sentient beings, striving after the perfections and compliance with the means of conversion."<ref>Pagel 1992, p. 76.</ref> This path begins with contemplating the failures of [[Saṃsāra|samsara]], developing [[Faith in Buddhism|faith]] in the Buddha, giving rise to bodhicitta and practicing the [[Brahmavihara|four immesurables]]. It then proceeds through all six perfections and finally discusses the four means of converting sentient beings (''saṃgrahavastu''). The path is presented through prose exposition, mnemonic lists ([[Abhidharma|''matrka'']]) and also through Jataka narratives.<ref>Pagel 1992, pp. 76-85.</ref> Using this general framework, the ''Bodhisattvapiṭaka'' incorporates discussions related to other practices including super knowledge (''abhijñā''), learning, 'skill' (''kauśalya''), accumulation of merit (''[[Merit (Buddhism)|puṇyasaṃbhāra]]''), the thirty-seven factors of awakening (''[[Bodhipakkhiyādhammā|bodhipakṣadharmas]]''), perfect mental quietude (''[[Samatha|śamatha]]'') and insight (''[[Vipassanā|vipaśyanā]]'').<ref>Pagel 1992, p. 115.</ref>

Later Mahayana treatises ([[Shastra|''śāstras'']]) like the ''[[Yogacarabhumi-sastra|Bodhisattvabhumi]]'' and the ''[[Mahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika|Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra]]'' provide the following schema of bodhisattva practices:<ref name=":5" />

* ''Bodhipakṣa-caryā'', the practice of the 37 ''[[Bodhipakkhiyādhammā|bodhipakṣadharmas]]'' (the principles conducive to bodhi) which are: the [[Satipatthana|four applications of mindfulness]], the [[Four Right Exertions|four right efforts]], the [[Iddhipada|four bases of spiritual power]], the [[Five Spiritual Faculties|five spiritual faculties]], the [[Five Strengths|five strengths]], the [[Seven Factors of Enlightenment|seven factors of awakening]] and the [[Noble Eightfold Path|noble eightfold path.]]
* ''Abhijñā-caryā'', the practice of the [[Abhijñā|super-knowledges]] (which are mainly developed in order to convert, help and guide others).<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 115</ref>
* ''Pāramitā-caryā,'' the practice of the [[Pāramitā|perfections]], which are: [[Dāna]] (generosity), [[Śīla]] (virtue, ethics), [[Kshanti|Kṣānti]] (patient endurance), [[Vīrya]] (heroic energy), [[Dhyāna in Buddhism|Dhyāna]] (meditation), [[Prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajñā]] (wisdom), [[Upaya|Upāya]] (skillful means), [[Bodhisattva vow|Praṇidhāna]] (vow, resolve), [[Five Strengths|Bala]] (spiritual power), and [[Jnana|Jñāna]] (knowledge).
* ''Sattvaparipāka-caryā'', the practice of maturing the living beings, i.e. preaching and teaching others.

The first six perfections (''pāramitās'') are the most significant and popular set of bodhisattva virtues and thus they serve as a central framework for bodhisattva practice. They are the most widely taught and commented upon virtues throughout the history of Mahayana Buddhist literature and feature prominently in major Sanskrit sources such as the ''Bodhisattvabhumi'', the ''Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra,'' the ''[[Samadhiraja Sutra|King of Samadhis Sutra]]'' and the ''Ten Stages Sutra''.<ref>Dayal 1970, pp. 165-167.</ref> They are extolled and praised by these sources as "the great oceans of all the bright virtues and auspicious principles" (''Bodhisattvabhumi'') and "the Teacher, the Way and the Light...the Refuge and the Shelter, the Support and the Sanctuary" (''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'').<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 171</ref>

While many Mahayana sources discuss the bodhisattva's training in ethical discipline (''śīla'') in classic Buddhist terms, over time, there also developed specific sets of [[Bodhisattva Precepts|ethical precepts for bodhisattvas]] (Skt. ''bodhisattva-śīla''). These various sets of precepts are usually taken by bodhisattva aspirants (lay and ordained monastics) along with classic Buddhist [[Pratimokṣa|pratimoksha]] precepts. However, in some [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhist]] traditions, monastics rely solely on the bodhisattva precepts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Abe |first=Ryuichi |title=The Weaving of Mantra: Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-231-11286-4 |pages=40–44, 50–52}}</ref><ref name="Ford">{{cite book |last=Ford |first=James L. |title=Jokei and Buddhist Devotion in Early Medieval Japan |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-518814-1 |pages=131, 132}}</ref>
[[file:032 Prajnaparamita from the Side (39706588044).jpg|thumb|[[Prajnaparamita of Java|Bodhisattva Prajñaparamita]], a female personification of the perfection of wisdom, [[Singhasari]] period, East Java, Indonesia, 13th century]]
The perfection of wisdom (''[[Prajnaparamita|prajñāpāramitā]]'') is generally seen as the most important and primary of the perfections, without which all the others fall short. Thus, the ''[[Madhyamakāvatāra|Madhyamakavatara]]'' (6:2) states that wisdom leads the other perfections as a man with eyes leads the blind.<ref>Williams, Paul (2008). ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'', p. 51. Routledge.</ref> This perfect or transcendent wisdom has various qualities, such as being non-attached (''asakti''), non-conceptual and non-dual (''[[Nonduality (spirituality)|advaya]]'') and signless (''animitta''). It is generally understood as a kind of insight into the true nature of all phenomena (''[[Abhidharma|dharmas]]'') which in Mahayana sutras is widely described as emptiness (''[[Śūnyatā|shunyatā]]'').<ref>{{cite book |last1=Conze |first1=Edward |title=The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary |date=1973 |publisher=Four Seasons Foundation |isbn=978-0-87704-048-4 |page=163}}</ref><ref>Williams 2008, pp. 49-51.</ref><ref>Brunnholzl, Karl (2011). ''Gone Beyond: The Prajnaparamita Sutras The Ornament Of Clear Realization And Its Commentaries In The Tibetan Kagyu Tradition'', p. 30, Tsadra.</ref>

Another key virtue which the bodhisattva must develop is great [[compassion]] (''mahā-[[karuṇā]]''), a vast sense of care aimed at ending the suffering of all sentient beings.<ref>Williams 2008, p. 56.</ref> This great compassion is the ethical foundation of the bodhisattva, and it is also an applied aspect of their bodhicitta.<ref>Pettit, John W. (2013). ''Mipham's Beacon of Certainty: Illuminating the View of Dzogchen, the Great Perfection'', p. 43. Simon and Schuster.</ref> Great compassion must also be closely joined with the perfection of wisdom, which reveals that all the beings that the bodhisattva strives to save are ultimately empty of self ([[Anattā|''anātman'']]) and lack [[Svabhava|inherent existence]] (''niḥsvabhāva'').<ref>Williams 2008, pp. 56-57.</ref> Due to the bodhisattva's compassionate wish to save all beings, they develop innumerable skillful means or strategies (''[[upaya]]'') with which to teach and guide different kinds of beings with all sorts of different inclinations and tendencies.<ref>Williams 2008, p. 57.</ref>

Another key virtue for the bodhisattva is [[Sati (Buddhism)|mindfulness]] (''smṛti''), which Dayal calls "the sine qua non of moral progress for a bodhisattva."<ref name="auto1">Dayal 1970, p. 86.</ref> Mindfulness is widely emphasized by Buddhist authors and Sanskrit sources and it appears four times in the list of 37 ''bodhipakṣadharmas''.<ref name="auto1"/> According to the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'', a bodhisattva must never lose mindfulness so as not to be confused or distracted. The ''Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra'' states that mindfulness is the principal asset of a bodhisattva, while both [[Aśvaghoṣa|Asvaghosa]] and [[Shantideva]] state that without mindfulness, a bodhisattva will be helpless and uncontrolled (like a mad elephant) and will not succeed in conquering the mental afflictions.<ref>Dayal 1970, pp. 87-88</ref>

=== The length and nature of the path ===
[[file:Vajrapani_Bodhisattva.jpg|thumb|Tibetan painting of Vajrapani, 19th-century]]
Just as with non-Mahayana sources, Mahayana sutras generally depict the bodhisattva path as a long path that takes many lifetimes across many aeons.<ref>Dayal 1970, pp. 68, 76.</ref> Some sutras state that a beginner bodhisattva could take anywhere from 3 to 22 countless eons (''[[asaṃkhyeya|mahāsaṃkhyeya]] kalpas'') to become a Buddha.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinawts.com/list/budedu1/082718255.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121061430/http://www.chinawts.com/list/budedu1/082718255.htm |script-title=zh:佛教五台山------网上礼佛、五顶文殊、五爷祈愿池|archive-date=November 21, 2008|website=www.chinawts.com}}</ref><ref>[http://aaa.org.tw/Chen_voice/a_2008_11_25.pdf 成佛的目的是到每 – 個世界去度眾生.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411014117/http://aaa.org.tw/Chen_voice/a_2008_11_25.pdf|date=April 11, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hwayue.org.tw/lama/question4_08.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526210637/http://www.hwayue.org.tw/lama/question4_08.htm |script-title=zh:即身成就與三大阿僧祇劫之修行|archive-date=May 26, 2013}}</ref> The ''[[Mahāyānasaṃgraha]]'' of [[Asanga]] states that the bodhisattva must cultivate the six paramitas for three incalculable aeons (''kalpāsaṃkhyeya'').<ref>Gelongma Karma Migme Chodron; Lamotte, Étienne  ''[[Mahāyānasaṃgraha]] (La Somme du Grand Véhicule d'Asaṅga)'' Volume II, p. 28. Louvain : Bureaux du Muséon, 1938-1939.</ref> [[Shantideva]] meanwhile states that bodhisattvas must practice each perfection for sixty aeons or [[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpas]] and also declares that a bodhisattva must practice the path for an "inconceivable" (''acintya'') number of kalpas. Thus, the bodhisattva path could take many billions upon billions of years to complete.<ref>Dayal 1970, pp. 77-79</ref>

Later developments in Indian and Asian Mahayana Buddhism (especially in [[Vajrayana]] or tantric Buddhism) lead to the idea that certain methods and practices could substantially shorten the path (and even lead to Buddhahood in a single lifetime).<ref>Wayman, Alex (2013). ''The Buddhist Tantras: Light on Indo-Tibetan Esotericism'', p. 5.</ref><ref name=":9" /> In [[Pure Land Buddhism]], an aspirant might go to a Buddha's [[pure land]] or buddha-field (''buddhakṣetra''), like [[Sukhavati]], where they can study the path directly with a Buddha. This could significantly shorten the length of the path, or at least make it more bearable. East Asian Pure Land Buddhist traditions, such as [[Jōdo-shū]] and [[Jōdo Shinshū]], hold the view that realizing Buddhahood through the long bodhisattva path of the perfections is no longer practical in the current age (which is understood as a degenerate age called [[Three Ages of Buddhism|''mappo'']]). Thus, they rely on the salvific power of [[Amitābha|Amitabha]] to bring Buddhist practitioners to the pure land of Sukhavati, where they will better be able to practice the path.<ref>Kawamura (ed) 1981, p. 169.</ref>

This view is rejected by other schools such as [[Tendai]], [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]] and [[Zen]]. The founders of Tendai and Shingon, [[Saichō|Saicho]] and [[Kūkai|Kukai]], held that anyone who practiced the path properly could reach awakening in this very lifetime.<ref>Kawamura (ed) 1981, pp. 170-176</ref> Buddhist schools like [[Tiantai]], [[Huayan school|Huayan]], [[Chan Buddhism|Chan]] and the various [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] traditions maintain that they teach ways to attain Buddhahood within one lifetime.<ref>{{cite web |title=顯教與密教 |url=http://www.bukon.idv.tw/mantra/b11.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911110810/http://www.bukon.idv.tw/mantra/b11.htm |archive-date=11 September 2011 |access-date=21 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.yinshun.org/Enlightenment/1997/1997oct/1999oct1.htm|title=每月一書|website=www.yinshun.org}}</ref>

Some of early depictions of the Bodhisattva path in texts such as the ''[[Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra]]'' describe it as an arduous, difficult monastic path suited only for the few which is nevertheless the most glorious path one can take. Three kinds of bodhisattvas are mentioned: the forest, city, and monastery bodhisattvas—with forest dwelling being promoted a superior, even necessary path in sutras such as the ''Ugraparipṛcchā'' and the [[Samadhiraja Sutra|''Samadhiraja'']] sutras.<ref>Ray, Reginald (1999). ''Buddhist saints in India'', p. 265, p. 252.</ref> The early ''Rastrapalapariprccha sutra'' also promotes a solitary life of meditation in the forests, far away from the distractions of the householder life. The ''Rastrapala'' is also highly critical of monks living in monasteries and in cities who are seen as not practicing meditation and morality.<ref>Ray, Reginald (1999). ''Buddhist saints in India'', p. 265.</ref>

The ''Ratnagunasamcayagatha'' also says the bodhisattva should undertake ascetic practices ([[dhutanga|''dhūtaguṇa'']]), "wander freely without a home", practice the [[paramitas]] and train under a guru in order to perfect his meditation practice and realization of [[prajnaparamita|''prajñaparamita'']].<ref>Ray, Reginald (1999). ''Buddhist saints in India'', p.  255.</ref> The twelve ''dhūtaguṇas'' are also promoted by the [[Samadhiraja Sutra|''King of Samadhis Sutra'']], the ''[[Ten Stages Sutra]]'' and Shantideva.<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 135.</ref> Some scholars have used these texts to argue for "the forest hypothesis", the theory that the initial Bodhisattva ideal was associated with a strict forest [[asceticism]]. But other scholars point out that many other Mahayana sutras do not promote this ideal, and instead teach "easy" practices like memorizing, reciting, teaching and copying Mahayana sutras, as well as meditating on Buddhas and bodhisattvas (and reciting or chanting their names).<ref name=":1" /> Ulrich Pagel also notes that in numerous sutras found in the ''Mahāratnakūṭa'' collection, the bodhisattva ideal is placed "firmly within the reach of non-celibate layfolk."<ref>Pagel 1992, p. 45.</ref>

=== Bodhisattvas and Nirvana ===
[[Image:慈母観音菩薩 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Japanese statue of [[Guanyin|Kannon]] (Guanyin, a popular female form of Avalokiteshvara in East Asia)]]
[[File:Mural of Manjusri at Namdroling.jpg|thumb|Mural painting of [[Manjushri]] in tantric union with his consort, the bodhisattva [[Saraswati|Sarasvati]] (also considered to be a form of Tara)]]
Related to the different views on the different types of [[Yana (Buddhism)|''yanas'']] or vehicles is the question of a bodhisattva's relationship to [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|nirvāṇa]]. In the various Mahāyāna texts, two theories can be discerned. One view is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained (at which point one ceases to be reborn, which is the classical view of [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|nirvāṇa]]). This view is promoted in some sutras like the ''Pañcavimsatisahasrika-prajñaparamita-sutra.<ref name=":10">Williams, Paul, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge, 2008, pp. 59–60.</ref>'' The idea is also found in the ''[[Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra]]'', which mentions that bodhisattvas take the following vow: "I shall not enter into final nirvana before all beings have been liberated."<ref name=":3">Dayal 1970, p. 18.</ref> Likewise, the ''[[Shantideva|Śikṣāsamuccaya]]'' states "I must lead all beings to Liberation. I will stay here till the end, even for the sake of one living soul."<ref name=":3" />

The second theory is the idea that there are two kinds of [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|nirvāṇa]], the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called [[Nirvana (Buddhism)#Apratiṣṭhita nirvāna|''apratiṣṭhita (''non-abiding)]] that allows a Buddha to remain engaged in the samsaric realms without being affected by them.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":16">Kawamura (ed) 1981, pp. 71-72</ref> This attainment was understood as a kind of [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dual]] state in which one is neither limited to samsara nor nirvana. A being who has reached this kind of nirvana is not restricted from manifesting in the samsaric realms, and yet they remain fully detached from the defilements found in these realms (and thus they can help others).<ref name=":16" />

This doctrine of non-abiding nirvana developed in the [[Yogachara|Yogacara]] school. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of ''apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa'' may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature, therefore while earlier sutras may sometimes speak of "postponement", later texts saw no need to postpone the "superior" ''apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa''.<ref name=":10" />

In this Yogacara model, the bodhisattva definitely rejects and avoids the liberation of the ''śravaka'' and ''pratyekabuddha'', described in Mahāyāna literature as either inferior or "[[Hinayana|''hina'']]" (as in [[Asaṅga]]'s fourth century ''[[Yogācārabhūmi]]'') or as ultimately false or illusory (as in the ''Lotus Sūtra'').<ref>"bodhisattva" In ''The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 135.</ref> That a bodhisattva has the option to pursue such a lesser path, but instead chooses the long path towards Buddhahood is one of the five criteria for one to be considered a bodhisattva. The other four are: being human, being a man, making a vow to become a Buddha in the presence of a previous Buddha, and receiving a prophecy from that Buddha.

Over time, a more varied analysis of bodhisattva careers developed focused on one's motivation. This can be seen in the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] teaching on three types of motivation for generating bodhicitta. According to [[Patrul Rinpoche]]'s 19th century ''Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (''Kun bzang bla ma'i gzhal lung''), a bodhisattva might be motivated in one of three ways. They are:<ref name=":6" />

# King-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha first in order to then help sentient beings.
# Boatman-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha at the same time as other sentient beings.
# Shepherd-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha only after all other sentient beings have done so.

These three are not types of people, but rather types of motivation. According to Patrul Rinpoche, the third quality of intention is most noble though the mode by which Buddhahood occurs is the first; that is, it is only possible to teach others the path to enlightenment once one has attained enlightenment oneself.<ref name=":6">''Words of My Perfect Teacher: A Complete Translation of A Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism.'' Translated by The Padmakara Translation Group. (Walnut Creek: Altamira, 1994), 218.</ref>

===Bodhisattva stages===
[[file:MET 27 DP238217R2 61C.jpg|thumb|Green Tara and her devotees, Folio from a Bengali manuscript of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (''Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines''), [[Metropolitan Museum of Art|MET]]]]
According to James B. Apple, if one studies the earliest textual materials which discuss the bodhisattva path (which includes the translations of [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|Lokakshema]] and the [[Gandhāran Buddhist texts|Gandharan manuscripts]]), "one finds four key stages that are demarcated throughout this early textual material that constitute the most basic elements in the path of a bodhisattva".<ref name=":7">Apple, James B. ''The Irreversible Bodhisattva (avaivartika) in the Lotus sutra and Avaivartikacakrasutra.'' Bulletin of The Institute of Oriental Philosophy. No. 29, pp.(59-81) 176-154, 2014.</ref> These main elements are:<ref name=":7" />

# "The arising of the thought of awakening (''bodhicittotpāda''), when a person first aspires to attain the state of Buddhahood and thereby becomes a bodhisattva"
# "Endurance towards the fact that things are [[Anutpada|not produced]]" (''anutpattikadharma-kṣānti'')
# "The attainment of the status of irreversibility" or non-retrogression (''avaivartika'') from Buddhahood, which means one is close to Buddhahood and that one can no longer turn back or regress from that attainment. They are exemplary monks, with cognitive powers equal to arhats. They practice the four dhyanas, have a deep knowledge of perfect wisdom and teach it to others. In the Lokakshema's Chinese translation of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā,'' the ''Daoxing Banruo Jing,'' this stage is closely related to a concentration (''samadhi'') that "does not grasp at anything at all" (''sarvadharmāparigṛhīta'').
# The prediction (''vyākaraṇa''), "the event when a Buddha predicts the time and place of a bodhisattva's subsequent awakening." The prediction is directly associated with the status of irreversibility. The ''Daoxing Banruo Jing'' states: "all the bodhisattvas who have realized the irreversible stage have obtained their prediction to Buddhahood from the Buddhas in the past."<ref name=":7" />

According to Drewes, the ''[[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]]'' divides the bodhisattva path into three main stages. The first stage is that of bodhisattvas who "first set out in the vehicle" (''prathamayānasaṃprasthita''), then there is the "irreversible" (''avinivartanīya'') stage, and finally the third "bound by one more birth" (''ekajātipratibaddha''), as in, destined to become a Buddha in the next life.<ref name=":0" /> Lamotte also mentions four similar stages of the bodhiattva career which are found in the ''[[Da zhidu lun|Dazhidulun]]'' translated by [[Kumārajīva|Kumarajiva]]: (1) ''Prathamacittotpādika'' ("who produces the mind of Bodhi for the first time"), (2) ''Ṣaṭpāramitācaryāpratipanna'' ("devoted to the practice of the six perfections"), (3) ''Avinivartanīya'' (non-regression), (4) ''Ekajātipratibaddha'' ("separated by only one lifetime from buddhahood").<ref>Gelongma Karma Migme Chodron (trans from French); Lamotte, Etienne (trans). ''The Treatise on the Great Virtue of Wisdom, Volume V (Traite de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse de Nagarjuna (Mahaprajnaparamitasastra), Tome V),'' p. 1969.</ref>

Drewes notes that Mahāyāna sūtras mainly depict a bodhisattvas' first arising of bodhicitta as occurring in the presence of a Buddha. Furthermore, according to Drewes, most Mahāyāna sūtras "never encourage anyone to become a bodhisattva or present any ritual or other means of doing so."<ref name=":0" /> In a similar manner to the nikāya sources, Mahāyāna sūtras also see new bodhisattvas as likely to regress, while seeing irreversible bodhisattvas are quite rare. Thus, according to Drewes, "the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'', for instance, states that as many bodhisattvas as there grains of sand in the Ganges turn back from the pursuit of Buddhahood and that out of innumerable beings who give rise to bodhicitta and progress toward Buddhahood, only one or two will reach the point of becoming irreversible."<ref name=":0" />

Drewes also adds that early texts like the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'' treat bodhisattvas who are beginners (''ādikarmika'') or "not long set out in the [great] vehicle" with scorn, describing them as "blind", "unintelligent", "lazy" and "weak". Early Mahayana works identify them with those who reject Mahayana or who abandon Mahayana, and they are seen as likely to become ''[[śrāvaka]]s''  (those on the ''[[arhat]]'' path). Rather than encouraging them to become bodhisattvas, what early Mahayana sutras like the ''Aṣṭa'' do is to help individuals determine if they have already received a prediction in a past life, or if they are close to this point.<ref name=":0" />

The ''Aṣṭa'' provides a variety of methods, including forms of ritual or [[divination]], [[Dream interpretation|methods dealing with dreams]] and various tests, especially tests based on one's reaction to the hearing of the content in the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā'' itself. The text states that encountering and accepting its teachings mean one is close to being given a prediction and that if one does not "shrink back, cower or despair" from the text, but "firmly believes it", one is either irreversible or is close to this stage. Many other Mahayana sutras such as the ''Akṣobhyavyūha'', ''[[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalakīrtinirdeśa]]'', ''Sukhāvatīvyūha'', and the ''[[Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra|Śūraṃgamasamādhi Sūtra]]'' present textual approaches to determine one's status as an advanced bodhisattva. These mainly depend on a person's attitude towards listening to, believing, preaching, proclaiming, copying or memorizing and reciting the sutra as well as practicing the sutra's teachings.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" />

According to Drewes, this claim that merely having faith in Mahāyāna sūtras meant that one was an advanced bodhisattva, was a departure from previous Nikaya views about bodhisattvas. It created new groups of Buddhists who accepted each other's bodhisattva status.<ref name=":0" /> Some Mahayana texts are more open with their bodhisattva doctrine. The ''Lotus Sutra'' famously assures large numbers people that they will certainly achieve Buddhahood, with few requirements (other than hearing and accepting the ''Lotus Sutra'' itself).<ref name=":8" />

==== The bodhisattva grounds (''bhūmis'') ====
[[File:Bodhisattva, Kamakura period, Japan.jpg|thumb|[[Maitreya]], 13th century, [[Kamakura period]], [[Tokyo National Museum]], [[Important Cultural Property (Japan)|Important Cultural Property]] of [[Japan]]]]
According to various Mahāyāna sources, on the way to becoming a Buddha, a bodhisattva proceeds through various stages (''[[Bhumi (Buddhism)|bhūmis]]'') of spiritual progress''.'' The term ''bhūmi'' means "earth" or "place" and figurately can mean "ground, plane, stage, level; state of consciousness".<ref>Dayal 1970, p. 270.</ref>  There are various lists of bhumis, the most common is a list of ten found in the ''[[Ten Stages Sutra|Daśabhūmikasūtra]]'' (but there are also lists of seven stages as well as lists which have more than 10 stages).<ref>Dayal 1970, pp. 271-272.</ref>

The ''[[Ten Stages Sutra|Daśabhūmikasūtra]]'' lists the following ten stages:

# '''Great Joy:''' It is said that being close to enlightenment and seeing the benefit for all [[Sentient beings (Buddhism)|sentient beings]], one achieves great joy, hence the name. In this ''bhūmi'' the bodhisattvas practice all [[paramita|perfections]] (''pāramitās''), but especially emphasizing [[dana (Buddhism)|generosity]] (''dāna'').
# '''Stainless:''' In accomplishing the second ''bhūmi'', the bodhisattva is free from the stains of immorality, therefore, this ''bhūmi'' is named "stainless". The emphasized perfection is [[śila|moral discipline]] (''śīla'').
# '''Luminous:''' The light of Dharma is said to radiate for others from the bodhisattva who accomplishes the third ''bhūmi''. The emphasized perfection is [[kṣanti|patience]] (''{{IAST|kṣānti}}'').
# '''Radiant:''' This ''bhūmi'' it is said to be like a radiating light that fully burns that which opposes enlightenment. The emphasized perfection is [[vīrya|vigor]] (''vīrya'').
# '''Very difficult to train:''' Bodhisattvas who attain this ground strive to help sentient beings attain maturity, and do not become emotionally involved when such beings respond negatively, both of which are difficult to do. The emphasized perfection is [[Dhyāna in Buddhism|meditative concentration]] (''dhyāna'').
# '''Obviously Transcendent:''' By depending on the perfection of wisdom, [the bodhisattva] does not abide in either ''[[saṃsāra|{{IAST|saṃsāra}}]]'' or ''[[nirvāṇa|{{IAST|nirvāṇa}}]]'', so this state is "obviously transcendent".  The emphasized perfection is [[Wisdom in Buddhism|wisdom]] (''prajñā'').
# '''Gone afar:''' Particular emphasis is on the perfection of [[upaya|skillful means]] (''upāya''), to help others.
# '''Immovable:''' The emphasized virtue is aspiration. This "immovable" ''bhūmi'' is where one becomes able to choose his place of rebirth.
# '''Good Discriminating Wisdom:''' The emphasized virtue is the understanding of self and non-self.
# '''Cloud of Dharma:''' The emphasized virtue is the practice of primordial wisdom. After this ''bhūmi'', one attains full Buddhahood.

In some sources, these ten stages are correlated with a different schema of the buddhist path called [[Bhūmi (Buddhism)#Five Paths|the five paths]] which is derived from [[Vaibhāṣika|Vaibhasika]] [[Abhidharma]] sources.<ref>Watanabe, Chikafumi (2000), ''A Study of Mahayanasamgraha III: The Relation of Practical Theories and Philosophical Theories." Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Calgary, pp. 38-40.''</ref>

The ''[[Shurangama Sutra|Śūraṅgama Sūtra]]'' recognizes 57 stages. Various [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] schools recognize additional grounds (varying from 3 to 10 further stages), mostly 6 more grounds with variant descriptions.<ref>{{cite web |title=大圆满心性休息 – 显密文库 佛教文集 |url=http://read.goodweb.cn/news/news_more.asp?lm2=603 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908080747/http://read.goodweb.cn/news/news_more.asp?lm2=603 |archive-date=8 September 2015 |access-date=21 August 2015 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=鄔金旺度 |title=吉祥鄔金密嚴寺 |date=29 August 2009 |url=http://akanistha.blogspot.com/2009/08/blog-post_4818.html |access-date=21 August 2015}}</ref> A bodhisattva above the 7th ground is called a ''[[mahāsattva]]''. Some bodhisattvas such as [[Samantabhadra Bodhisattva|Samantabhadra]] are also said to have already attained Buddhahood.<ref>{{cite web |title=459 因地菩薩和果地菩薩 |url=http://wisdom.buddhistdoor.com/alankwan/2009/09/13/459-%E5%9B%A0%E5%9C%B0%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E5%92%8C%E6%9E%9C%E5%9C%B0%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105090211/http://wisdom.buddhistdoor.com/alankwan/2009/09/13/459-%E5%9B%A0%E5%9C%B0%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E5%92%8C%E6%9E%9C%E5%9C%B0%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9/ |archive-date=5 November 2011}}</ref>

===Sōtō Zen===
As part of the [[Sōtō|Sōtō Zen]] school of Mahāyanā, [[Dōgen Zenji]] described [[Shobogenzo|Four Exemplary Acts of a Bodhisattva]]:

* Offering Alms: Not being covetous or greedy;
* Kind Speech: Feeling genuine affection for other sentient beings and offering words that are neither harsh nor rude.
* Benevolence: Working out skillful methods to benefit sentient beings, be they of low or high station.
* Manifesting Sympathy: Not making differences, not treating yourself as different and not treating others as different.