Islam

== Criticism ==
{{Main|Criticism of Islam}}
{{see also|Criticism of Muhammad|Criticism of the Quran}}
[[File:John Damascus (arabic icon).gif|right|thumb|upright|[[John of Damascus]], under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the [[Bible]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx |title=Writings by St John of Damascus |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |year=1958 |series=The Fathers of the Church |volume=37 |location=Washington, DC |pages=153–160 |chapter=St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>]]

Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as [[Ibn Kammuna]], and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a [[Medieval Christian views on Muhammad|Christian heresy]] or a form of [[idolatry]], often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.{{sfnp|Fahlbusch et al|2001|p=[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=yaecVMhMWaEC|page=759}} 759]}} 

Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. [[Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari]] defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the [[Gospel of Matthew]]. Catholic theologian [[Augustine of Hippo]]'s doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. <ref>''Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions'' [[Cambridge University Press]], 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-521-50637-3}} pp. 18–20</ref>

Defamatory images of [[medieval Christian views on Muhammad|Muhammad]], derived from early 7th century depictions of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Church]],<ref name="ReferenceH">[[Minou Reeves|Reeves, Minou]], and P. J. Stewart. 2003. ''Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making''. [[New York University Press|NYU Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7564-6}}. p. 93–96.</ref> appear in the 14th-century epic poem ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' by [[Dante Alighieri]].<ref name="auto">Stone, G. 2006. ''Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion''. [[Springer Publishing]]. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-8309-1}}. p. 53-54.</ref> Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of [[schism]], by establishing another religion after Christianity.<ref name="auto" />

Other criticisms center on the [[Human rights in Muslim-majority countries|treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries]], including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Yohanan|last1=Friedmann|year=2003|title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/tolerancecoercio00frie|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/tolerancecoercio00frie/page/n31 18], 35|isbn=978-0-521-02699-4}}</ref> Furthermore, in the wake of the recent [[multiculturalism]] trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been [[criticism of multiculturalism|criticized]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Modood |first=Tariq |url=https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo |title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach |date=6 April 2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-35515-5 |edition=1st |page=[https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo/page/n43 29] |url-access=registration}}</ref>