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Do not fill this in! ==Society== [[file:Luoyang laojunshan.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Laojun (Henan)|Laojun Mountain]] temple of Laozi]] [[File:WhiteCloudTemplepic9.jpg|thumb|The [[White Cloud Temple]] in Beijing]] [[File:Weihai-Xianguting-Temple.jpg|thumb|Xianguting Temple, a ''[[Taoist temple|Taoguan]]'' in [[Weihai]], [[Shandong]], China]] Taoist communities can include a wide variety of people and groups, including daoshi, hermits, monastics, teachers, householders, ascetics, family lineages, teacher-disciple lineages, urban associations, temples, and monasteries.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=41-43}} According to Russell Kirkland, throughout most of its history, most Taoist traditions "were founded and maintained by [[Chinese nobility|aristocrats]] or by members of the later well-to-do '[[Landed gentry in China|gentry]]' class".{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=81}} The only real exception is the [[Way of the Celestial Masters|Celestial Masters]] movement, which had a strong basis in the lower classes (though even this movement had a hereditary leadership made up of figures of the Chang clan for generations).{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=81}} ===Adherents=== The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors, including defining Taoism. According to a survey of [[religion in China]] in 2010, the number of people practicing some form of [[Chinese folk religion]] is near to 950 million, which is 70% of Chinese.<ref name="CSLS2010">2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Data reported in {{harvp|Wenzel-Teuber|Strait|2012|p=29–54}}</ref> Among these, 173 million (13%) claim an affiliation with Taoist practices.<ref name="CSLS2010"/> 12 million people stated that they were "Taoists", a term traditionally used exclusively for initiates, priests, and experts of Taoist rituals and methods.<ref name="CSLS2010"/> Since the creation of the People's Republic of China, the government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in codified settings. In 1956, the [[Chinese Taoist Association]] was formed to administer the activities of all registered Taoist orders, and received official approval in 1957.<ref name="Taoism: Modern Age">{{cite web |title=Taoism: Modern Age |website=Patheos |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism/Historical-Development/Modern-Age.html|access-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115093751/http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism/Historical-Development/Modern-Age.html|archive-date=15 November 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> It was disbanded during the [[Cultural Revolution]] under [[Mao Zedong]], but was reestablished in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the ''Baiyunguan'', or [[White Cloud Temple]] of [[Beijing]], belonging to the [[Longmen Taoism|Longmen]] branch of the [[Quanzhen School|Quanzhen]] tradition.<ref name="Taoism: Modern Age"/> Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, both belonging to the [[Zhengyi Dao|Zhengyi]] or Quanzhen schools, and clergy [[ordination]] has been resumed. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of [[Taoism in Korea|Korea]], [[Taoism in Japan|Japan]], and [[Taoism in Vietnam|Vietnam]]. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan, 7.5 million people, 33% of the population, identify themselves as Taoists.<ref name="moi">{{cite web|title=Taiwan Yearbook 2006|publisher=Taiwan Government Information Office, Department of Civil Affairs, Ministry of the Interior|year=2006 |url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070708213510/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm |archive-date=8 July 2007}}</ref> Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of [[Hong Kong]]<ref>{{cite web|title=2010 Yearbook – Religion |publisher=Hong Kong Government |url=http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2010/en/pdf/E18.pdf|access-date=20 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630094849/http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2010/en/pdf/E18.pdf|archive-date=30 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Singapore]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion |publisher=Singapore Department of Statistics |url=http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf |date=12 January 2011 |archive-date=3 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303155259/http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf }}</ref> show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists. Followers of Daoism are present in Chinese émigré communities outside Asia. It has attracted followers with no Chinese heritage. For example, in Brazil there are Daoist temples in [[São Paulo]] and Rio de Janeiro that are affiliated with the Taoist Society of China. Membership of these temples is entirely of non-Chinese ancestry.<ref>Murray, Daniel M. & Miller, James. "The Taoist Society of Brazil and the Globalization of Orthodox Unity Taoism." Journal of Taoist Studies, vol. 6, 2013, pp. 93–114. {{doi|10.1353/Tao.2013.0003}}; Murray, Daniel M., and James Miller. "TRADUÇAO: A Sociedade Taoísta do Brasil e a globalizaçao do Taoismo da Ortodoxia Unitária." Religare: Revista Do Programa De Pós Graduaç Ao Em Ciências Das Religi Oes Da Ufpb 12 (2016): 315–43.</ref> ===Art and poetry=== {{Further|Taoist art}} [[File:清中期 碧玉山子-Boulder with Daoist paradise MET DP223608.jpg|thumb|Carved Jade boulder with a Taoist paradise.]] [[File:Album of 18 Daoist Paintings - 7.jpg|thumb|A 16th century painting of the immortal [[Liezi]] by [[Zhang Lu (painter)|Zhang Lu]] (1464–1538).]] Throughout Chinese history, there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoism.<ref name="Bellingham-1992" /> Notable painters influenced by Taoism include [[Wu Wei (painter)|Wu Wei]], [[Huang Gongwang]], [[Mi Fu]], [[Muqi Fachang]], [[Shitao]], [[Ni Zan]], Tang Mi, and Wang Zengzu.{{sfnp|Chang|1968}} Taoist arts and [[belles-lettres]] represents the diverse regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy; however, scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Augustin|first1=Birgitta|title=Taoism and Taoist Art|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/Taoi/hd_Taoi.htm|access-date=16 July 2014|archive-date=12 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812074059/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/Taoi/hd_Taoi.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Political aspects=== Taoism never had a unified political theory. While [[Huang–Lao]] positions justified a strong emperor as the legitimate ruler,{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=224–226, 370–374}} the Taoist "primitivists" (of chapters 8–11 of the ''Zhuangzi'') argued for a kind of [[anarchism]]. A more moderate position is presented in the Inner Chapters of the [[Zhuangzi (book)|''Zhuangzi'']] in which the political life is presented with disdain and some kind of pluralism or perspectivism is preferred.{{sfnp|Graham|1989|pp=172, 306–311}} The syncretist position found in texts like the ''[[Huainanzi]]'' and some of the Outer Chapters of the ''Zhuangzi'' blend Taoist positions with Confucian views.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roth|first=Harold D.|title=Dao Companion to Daoist Philosophy |chapter=Huainanzi: The Pinnacle of Classical Daoist Syncretism |date=2014-09-27|pages=341–365|publisher=Springer Netherlands|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-2927-0_15|isbn=978-90-481-2926-3|series=Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy |volume=6 }}</ref> ===Relations with other traditions=== {{See also|Three teachings}} [[file:Huxisanxiaotu.jpg|thumb|A painting in the ''litang style'' portraying "[[Three laughs at Tiger Brook|three laughs at tiger brook]]" which illustrates the unity of the [[three teachings]], 12th century, [[Song dynasty]].]] [[File:Hunyuan Xuankong Si 2013.08.30 09-02-11.jpg|thumb|The [[Hanging Temple]], a temple which contains elements from all three teachings]] Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to [[Confucianism]].{{sfnp|Fisher|1997|p=167}} The philosophical terms ''Tao'' and ''De'' are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism.{{sfnp|Markham|Ruparell|2001|p=254}} [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]] explicitly criticized Confucian and [[Mohist]] tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucian emphasis on [[li (Confucian)|rituals]], hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors "naturalness", spontaneity, and individualism instead.{{sfnp|Maspero|1981|p=39}} The entry of [[Chinese Buddhism|Buddhism]] into China was marked by significant interaction and [[syncretism]] with Taoism.{{sfnp|Maspero|1981|p=46}} Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Toism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.{{sfnp|Prebish|1975|p=192}} Representatives of early [[Chinese Buddhism]], like [[Sengzhao]] and [[Tao Sheng]], knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.{{sfnp|Dumoulin|Heisig|Knitter|2005|pp=70, 74}} Taoism especially shaped the development of [[Chinese Chan|Chan Buddhism]],{{sfnp|Mollier|2008}}<ref name="Ware-2023">{{Cite web |last=Ware |first=James Hamilton |title=Zhuangzi |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zhuangzi |access-date=2023-04-29 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=1 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401032712/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zhuangzi |url-status=live }}</ref> introducing elements like the concept of ''naturalness'', distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment".{{sfnp|Dumoulin|Heisig|Knitter|2005|pp=68, 70–73, 167–168}} Zhuangzi's statements that the Tao was omnipresent and that creation escorts animals and humans to death influenced [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] practitioners and scholars, especially Chan Buddhists.<ref name="Ware-2023" /> On the other hand, Taoism also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang dynasty. Examples of such influence include monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organization in certain sects.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another.{{sfnp|Markham|Ruparell|2001|pp=248–249}} For example, [[Wang Bi]], one of the most influential philosophical commentators on ''Laozi'' (and the ''[[I Ching]]''), was a Confucian.{{sfnp|Schipper|1993|p=192}} The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a [[humanism|humanist]] philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.<ref name="window">[http://www.asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html Windows on Asia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220182953/http://www.asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html |date=2009-02-20 }} Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University.</ref> This became institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] school.{{sfnp|Moore|1967|pp=133, 147}} [[Christianity|Christian]] and Taoist contact often took place in the Tang dynasty,<ref name="Chua-2007a">{{Cite book |last=Chua |first=Amy |title=Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance–and Why They Fall |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-385-51284-8 |edition=1st |location=New York |page=71 |oclc=123079516}}</ref> and some scholars believe that the [[Church of the East]] influenced Taoist thought on the [[Three Pure Ones]].<ref name="Gurdon-2002">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=393 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Emperor Taizong]] encouraged this, and Taoists who agreed with him and his laws incorporated elements of Christianity, [[Islam]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Judaism]], [[Confucianism]], and [[Buddhism]] into their faith.<ref name="Chua-2007a" /> === Comparisons with other religions === Comparisons between Taoism and [[Epicureanism]] have focused on the absence of a creator or gods controlling the forces of nature in both.<ref>[https://societyofepicurus.com/contemplations-on-the-tao-series] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008084805/https://societyofepicurus.com/contemplations-on-the-tao-series/|date=8 October 2022}} Contemplations on the Tao Series</ref> Lucretius' poem ''[[De rerum natura]]'' describes a naturalist cosmology where there are only atoms and void (a primal duality which mirrors [[yin-yang]] in its dance of assertion/yielding), and where nature takes its course with no gods or masters. Other parallels include the similarities between Daoist "wu wei" (effortless action) and Epicurean "lathe biosas" (live unknown), focus on naturalness (ziran) as opposed to conventional virtues, and the prominence of the Epicurus-like Chinese sage Yang Chu in the foundational Taoist writings. Some authors have undertaken [[comparative religion|comparative studies]] of Taoism and Christianity. This has been of interest for students of the [[history of religion]] such as [[J. J. M. de Groot]],{{sfnp|Werblowsky|2002 |p=25}} among others. A comparison of the teachings of Laozi and [[Jesus of Nazareth]] has been made by several authors, such as Martin Aronson,{{sfnp|Aronson|2002|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}} and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that there are parallels that should not be ignored.{{sfnp|Toropov|Hansen|2002|pp=169–181}} In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto, the main difference is that Christianity preaches a [[personal God]] while Daoism does not.{{sfnp|Yamamoto|1998|pp=69–70}} Yet, a number of authors, including [[Lin Yutang]],{{sfnp|Ruokanen|Zhanzhu Huang|2010|p=137}} have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of the religions are similar.{{sfnp|Zhiming|2010|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}{{sfnp|Chung|2001|p=141–145}} In neighboring [[Taoism in Vietnam|Vietnam]], Taoist values have been shown to adapt to social norms and formed emerging sociocultural beliefs together with Confucianism.{{sfnp|Napier|Pham|Nguyen|Nguyen|2018}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). 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