Protestantism

==Protestant offshoots==
===Arminianism===
{{Main|Arminianism|Remonstrants}}
{{See also|History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate}}
[[File:James Arminius 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Jacobus Arminius]], a [[Dutch Reformed Church]] theologian, whose views influenced parts of Protestantism. A small [[Remonstrants]] community remains in the [[Netherlands]].]]
[[Arminianism]] is based on [[Christian theology|theological]] ideas of the [[Dutch Reformed]] theologian [[Jacobus Arminius]] (1560–1609) and his historic supporters known as [[Remonstrants]]. His teachings held to the [[five solae]] of the Reformation, but they were distinct from particular teachings of [[Martin Luther]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], and other [[Protestant Reformers]]. Jacobus Arminius was a student of [[Theodore Beza]] at the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known to some as a [[soteriological]] diversification of [[Calvinism]].<ref>"Chambers Biographical Dictionary", ed. Magnus Magnusson (Chambers: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 62.</ref> However, to others, Arminianism is a reclamation of early Church theological consensus.<ref>Kenneth D. Keathley, "The Work of God: Salvation", in ''A Theology for the Church'', ed. Daniel L. Akin (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2007), 703.</ref> Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to the [[States General of the Netherlands]]. Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the [[Baptists]] in the 16th century,<ref>Robert G. Torbet, ''A History of the Baptists'', third edition</ref> the [[Methodists]] in the 18th century and the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] in the 19th century.

The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings of [[Hugo Grotius]], [[John Wesley]], and others as well. [[Arminianism#Classical Arminianism|Classical Arminianism]] and [[Wesleyan-Arminianism|Wesleyan Arminianism]] are the two main schools of thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism. The two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and the [[History of Christianity|history of Christian theology]]. However, because of their differences over the doctrines of divine [[predestination]] and election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. In short, the difference can be seen ultimately by whether God allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individual's will (in the Arminian doctrine) or if God's grace is irresistible and limited to only some (in Calvinism). Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a synergistic system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace, while Arminians firmly reject this conclusion. Many consider the theological differences to be crucial differences in doctrine, while others find them to be relatively minor.<ref>Gonzalez, Justo L. ''The Story of Christianity, Vol. Two: The Reformation to the Present Day'' (New York: Harpercollins Publishers, 1985; reprint – Peabody: Prince Press, 2008) 180</ref>

===Pietism===
{{Main|Pietism|Haugean movement}}
[[Pietism]] was an influential movement within [[Lutheranism]] that combined the 17th-century Lutheran principles with the [[Calvinism|Reformed]] emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous [[Christianity|Christian]] life.<ref>In places, such as parts of England and America, where Pietism was frequently juxtaposed with Catholicism, Catholics also became naturally influenced by Pietism, helping to foster a stronger tradition of congregational hymn-singing, including among Pietists who converted to Catholicism and brought their pietistic inclination with them, such as [[Frederick William Faber]].</ref>

It began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century, and had almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. While declining as an identifiable Lutheran group, some of its theological tenets influenced Protestantism generally, inspiring the [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] priest [[John Wesley]] to begin the [[Methodism|Methodist]] movement and [[Alexander Mack]] to begin the [[Schwarzenau Brethren|Brethren]] movement under an influence of [[Anabaptists]].<ref>Meier, Marcus (2008). The Origin of the Schwarzenau Brethren. Philadelphia: Brethren Encyclopedia. p. 144.</ref>

Though Pietism shares an emphasis on personal behavior with the [[Puritan]] movement, and the two are often confused, there are important differences, particularly in the concept of the role of religion in government.<ref>Calvinist Puritans believed that government was ordained by God to enforce Christian behavior upon the world; pietists see the government as a part of the world, and believers were called to voluntarily live faithful lives independent of government.</ref>

<gallery>
File:Philipp Jakob Spener.jpg|[[Philipp Jakob Spener]], a German pioneer and founder of [[Pietism]]
File:Pietism.JPG|Pietism has had a strong cultural influence in [[Scandinavia]]
File:Der breite und der schmale Weg 2008.jpg|''The Broad and the Narrow Way'', an 1866 German Pietist painting
</gallery>

===Puritanism, English dissenters and nonconformists===
{{Main|Puritans|English Dissenters|Independent (religion)|Nonconformist (Protestantism){{!}}Nonconformism|English Presbyterianism|Ecclesiastical separatism|17th-century denominations in England}}
The [[Puritans]] were a group of English Protestants in the [[Christianity in the 16th century|16th]] and [[Christianity in the 17th century|17th centuries]], which sought to purify the [[Church of England]] of what they considered to be Catholic practices, maintaining that the church was only partially reformed. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some of the returning [[Marian exiles|clergy exiled under Mary I]] shortly after the accession of [[Elizabeth I of England]] in 1558, as an activist movement within the [[Church of England]].

Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within, and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. Their beliefs, however, were transported by the emigration of congregations to the Netherlands (and later to New England), and by evangelical clergy to Ireland (and later into Wales), and were spread into lay society and parts of the educational system, particularly certain colleges of the [[University of Cambridge]]. The first Protestant sermon delivered in England was in Cambridge, with the pulpit that this sermon was delivered from surviving to today.<ref>{{cite web|title=Latimer's Pulpit|url=https://www.50treasures.divinity.cam.ac.uk/treasure/latimers-pulpit/|access-date=2020-12-30|website=Faculty of Divinity 50 Treasures|archive-date=5 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205203447/https://www.50treasures.divinity.cam.ac.uk/treasure/latimers-pulpit/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2020-06-25|title=Despite Cambridge's Protestant history, Catholic students are at home here|url=https://catholicherald.co.uk/despite-cambridges-protestant-history-catholic-students-are-at-home-here/|access-date=2020-09-21|website=Catholic Herald|language=en-GB|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927001656/https://catholicherald.co.uk/despite-cambridges-protestant-history-catholic-students-are-at-home-here/|url-status=live}}</ref> They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the [[Episcopal polity|episcopal]] system, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of the [[Synod of Dort]] they were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adopted [[Puritan Sabbatarianism|Sabbatarianism]] in the 17th century, and were influenced by [[millennialism]].

They formed, and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of [[worship]] and [[doctrine]], as well as personal and group [[pietism|piety]]. Puritans adopted a [[Reformed theology]], but they also took note of radical criticisms of Zwingli in Zurich and Calvin in Geneva. In church polity, some advocated for separation from all other Christians, in favor of autonomous [[gathered church]]es. These separatist and [[independent (religion)|independent]] strands of Puritanism became prominent in the 1640s. Although the [[English Civil War]] (which expanded into the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]) began over a contest for political power between the [[King of England]] and the [[House of Commons]], it divided the country along religious lines as [[Episcopalianism|episcopalians]] within the Church of England sided with the Crown and Presbyterians and Independents supported ''Parliament'' (after the defeat of the Royalists, the [[House of Lords]] as well as the Monarch were removed from the political structure of the state to create the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]]). The supporters of a [[Presbyterian polity]] in the [[Westminster Assembly]] were unable to forge a new English national church, and the Parliamentary [[New Model Army]], which was made up primarily of Independents, under [[Oliver Cromwell]] first purged Parliament, then abolished it and established [[The Protectorate]].

[[English overseas possessions in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms|England's trans-Atlantic colonies in the war]] followed varying paths depending on their internal demographics. In the older colonies, which included [[Virginia]] (1607) and its offshoot [[Bermuda]] (1612), as well as [[Barbados]] and [[Antigua]] in the West Indies (collectively the targets in 1650 of [[An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego]]), Episcopalians remained the dominant church faction and the colonies remained Royalist 'til conquered or compelled to accept the new political order. In Bermuda, with control of the local [[Government of Bermuda|government]] and the ''army'' (nine infantry companies of Militia plus [[coastal artillery]]), the Royalists forced Parliament-backing religious Independents into exile to settle the [[Bahamas]] as the [[Eleutheran Adventurers]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Langford Oliver |first=Vere |date=1912 |title=Pym Letters. Caribbeana: Being Miscellaneous papers Relating to the History. Genealogy, Topography, and Antiquities of the British West Indies. Volume II. |location=London |publisher=Mitchell Hughes and Clarke, 140 Wardour Street, W |page=14 |quote=The Government is changed. Within twenty days after his arrival, the Governor called an assembly, pretending thereby to reform certain things amiss. All the ministers in the island, Mr. White, Mr. Goldinge, and Mr. Copeland, were Independents, and they had set up a Congregational Church, of which most gentlemen of Council were members or favourers. The burgesses of this [[House of Assembly of Bermuda|assembly]] were picked out of those who were known to be enemies to that way, and they did not suffer a Roundhead (as they term them) to be chosen.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lefroy |first=Major-General Sir John Henry |date=1981 |title=Memorials of the Discovery and Early Settlement of the Bermudas or Somers Islands 1515-1685, Volume I |location=Bermuda |publisher=The Bermuda Historical Society and The Bermuda National Trust (the first edition having been published in 1877, with funds provided by the Government of Bermuda), printed in Canada by The University of Toronto Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eleuthera-map.com/eleuthera-island.htm |title=Eleuthera Island: History Notes |work=eleuthera-map.com |access-date=2021-10-17 |archive-date=1 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101125402/http://www.eleuthera-map.com/eleuthera-island.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Episcopalian was re-established following the [[Stuart Restoration#Church of England settlement|Restoration]]. A century later, non-conforming Protestants, along with the Protestant refugees from continental Europe, were to be among the primary instigators of the [[American War of Independence|war of secession]] that led to the founding of the United States of America.

<gallery>
File:John.Cotton.cropped.jpg|[[John Cotton (minister)|John Cotton]], who sparked the [[Antinomian Controversy]] with his [[free grace theology]]
File:Landing-Bacon.PNG|[[Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)|Pilgrim Fathers]] landing at [[Plymouth Rock]] in [[Plymouth, Massachusetts]] in 1620
File:OldShipEntrance.jpg|Built in 1681, the [[Old Ship Church]] in [[Hingham, Massachusetts]] is the oldest church in continuous ecclesiastical use in the United States.<ref>{{Cite news|last = Butterfield|first = Fox|title = The Perfect New England Town|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/14/travel/the-perfect-new-england-village.html?sec=&spon=|newspaper = [[The New York Times]]|date = 14 May 1989|access-date = 30 May 2010|archive-date = 18 November 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181118230017/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/14/travel/the-perfect-new-england-village.html?sec=&spon=|url-status = live}}</ref>
</gallery>

===Neo-orthodoxy and paleo-orthodoxy===
{{Main|Neo-orthodoxy|Paleo-orthodoxy}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 194-1283-23A, Wuppertal, Evangelische Gesellschaft, Jahrestagung.jpg|upright=1|thumb|[[Karl Barth]], often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the 20th century<ref name = "McGrath2011">{{cite book| first= Alister E| last= McGrath| title= Christian Theology: An Introduction| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bus5TyjTfxYC&pg=PA76| year= 2011| publisher= John Wiley & Sons| isbn= 978-1-4443-9770-3| page= 76| access-date= 27 June 2015| archive-date= 6 September 2015| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150906041426/https://books.google.com/books?id=bus5TyjTfxYC&pg=PA76| url-status= live}}</ref><ref name = "BrownCollinson2012">{{cite book | first1 = Stuart | last1 = Brown | first2 = Diane | last2 = Collinson | first3 = Robert | last3 = Wilkinson | title = Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Philosophers | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 | year = 2012 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | isbn = 978-0-415-06043-1 | page = 52 | access-date = 27 June 2015 | archive-date = 6 September 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150906044607/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 | url-status = live }}</ref>]]
A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity along the lines of the [[Christian existentialism]] of [[Søren Kierkegaard]], who attacked the [[Right Hegelians#Hegelian theologians|Hegelian]] state churches of his day for "dead orthodoxy", neo-orthodoxy is associated primarily with [[Karl Barth]], [[Jürgen Moltmann]], and [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]. Neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "crisis theology", in the existentialist sense of the word crisis, also sometimes called ''neo-evangelicalism'', which uses the sense of "evangelical" pertaining to continental European Protestants rather than American evangelicalism. "Evangelical" was the originally preferred label used by Lutherans and Calvinists, but it was replaced by the names some Catholics used to [[Labelling#Labelling in argumentation|label]] a heresy with the name of its founder.

[[Paleo-orthodoxy]] is a movement similar in some respects to neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early creeds and church councils as a means of properly understanding the scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational. A prominent theologian in this group is [[Thomas Oden]], a Methodist.

===Christian fundamentalism===
{{Main|Christian fundamentalism}}
In reaction to liberal Bible critique, [[fundamentalism]] arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism.
Fundamentalist theology tends to stress [[Biblical inerrancy]] and [[Biblical literalism]].

Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism; however, the labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism.

===Modernism and liberalism===
{{Main|Liberal Christianity}}
Modernism and liberalism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. Its opposition to the fundamentalist teaching resulted in religious debates, such as the [[Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy]] within the [[Presbyterian Church in the United States of America]] in the 1920s.