Dwight D. Eisenhower

== Legacy and memory ==
Eisenhower's reputation declined in the immediate years after he left office. During his presidency, he was widely seen by critics as an inactive, uninspiring, golf-playing president. This was in stark contrast to his vigorous young successor, John F. Kennedy, who was 26 years his junior. Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at [[Little Rock Central High School|Central High School]] in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the [[civil rights movement]] to the degree that activists wanted. Eisenhower also attracted criticism for his handling of the [[1960 U-2 incident]] and the associated international embarrassment,<ref name="'70s 27">{{harvnb|Frum|2000|p=27}}</ref><ref name="us news">{{Cite news|title=Presidential Lies and Deceptions |last=Walsh |first=Kenneth T. |date=June 6, 2008 |work=U.S. News & World Report |url=https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/politics/2008/06/06/presidential-lies-and-deceptions.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929194001/http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/politics/2008/06/06/presidential-lies-and-deceptions.html |archive-date=September 29, 2008 }}</ref> for the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the [[nuclear arms race]] and the [[Space Race]], and for his failure to publicly oppose [[McCarthyism]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Presidents and Civil Liberties from Wilson to Obama |date=2012 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/presidents-and-civil-liberties-from-wilson-to-obama/presidents-and-civil-liberties-from-wilson-to-obama/B0B615B2C365EF2387554EF9E1DB3790 |pages=i–ii |editor-last=Walker |editor-first=Samuel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01660-6 |access-date=February 26, 2023}}</ref> In particular, Eisenhower was criticized for failing to defend [[George C. Marshall]] from attacks by [[Joseph McCarthy]], though he privately deplored McCarthy's tactics.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=May 23, 2008 |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/34_eisenhower/eisenhower_politics.html |title=Presidential Politics |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080606222418/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/34_eisenhower/eisenhower_politics.html |archive-date=June 6, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Following the access of Eisenhower's private papers, his reputation changed amongst presidential historians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McMahon |first=Robert J. |date=1986 |title=Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2151625 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=453–473 |doi=10.2307/2151625 |jstor=2151625 |issn=0032-3195}}</ref><ref name="millerlegacy">{{cite web |last1=Pach |first1=Chester J. Jr. |date=October 4, 2016 |title=Dwight D. Eisenhower: Impact and Legacy |url=https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/impact-and-legacy |access-date=February 26, 2023 |website=Miller Center}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=RABE |first=STEPHEN G. |date=1993 |title=Eisenhower Revisionism: A Decade of Scholarship |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24912261 |journal=Diplomatic History |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=97–115 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1993.tb00160.x |jstor=24912261 |issn=0145-2096}}</ref> Historian [[John Lewis Gaddis]] has summarized a more recent turnaround in evaluations by historians:

<blockquote>Historians long ago abandoned the view that Eisenhower's was a failed presidency. He did, after all, end the Korean War without getting into any others. He stabilized, and did not escalate, the Soviet–American rivalry. He strengthened European alliances while withdrawing support from European colonialism. He rescued the Republican Party from isolationism and McCarthyism. He maintained prosperity, balanced the budget, promoted technological innovation, facilitated (if reluctantly) the civil rights movement and warned, in the most memorable farewell address since Washington's, of a "military–industrial complex" that could endanger the nation's liberties. Not until Reagan would another president leave office with so strong a sense of having accomplished what he set out to do.<ref>John Lewis Gaddis, [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/books/review/eisenhower-in-war-and-peace-by-jean-edward-smith.html "He Made It Look Easy: 'Eisenhower in War and Peace', by Jean Edward Smith"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206184614/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/books/review/eisenhower-in-war-and-peace-by-jean-edward-smith.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/books/review/eisenhower-in-war-and-peace-by-jean-edward-smith.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited |date=February 6, 2017 }}{{cbignore}}, ''New York Times Book Review'', April 20, 2012.</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Meeting with President Eisenhower. President Kennedy, President Eisenhower, military aides. Camp David, MD. - NARA - 194198.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy meets with General Eisenhower at [[Camp David]], April 22, 1961, three days after the failed [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]].]]

Although conservatism in politics was strong during the 1950s, and Eisenhower generally espoused conservative sentiments, his administration concerned itself mostly with foreign affairs and pursued a hands-off domestic policy. Eisenhower looked to moderation and cooperation as a means of governance, which he dubbed "The Middle Way".<ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal|jstor=1863309|title=Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Corporate Commonwealth|first=Robert|last=Griffith|date=January 1, 1982|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=87|issue=1|pages=87–122|doi=10.2307/1863309}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=[[Life (magazine)|Life]] |title=The President and His Decision |date=March 12, 1956 }}</ref>

Although he sought to slow or contain the [[New Deal]] and other federal programs, he did not attempt to repeal them outright. In doing so, Eisenhower was popular among the liberal wing of the Republican Party.<ref name="jstor.org" /> Conservative critics of his administration thought that he did not do enough to advance the goals of the right; according to [[Hans Morgenthau]], "Eisenhower's victories were but accidents without consequence in the history of the Republican party."<ref>Morgenthau, Hans J.: "Goldwater&nbsp;– The Romantic Regression", in ''Commentary'', September 1964.</ref>

Since the 19th century, many if not all presidents were assisted by a central figure or "gatekeeper", sometimes described as the president's private secretary, sometimes with no official title.<ref name=medved>{{cite book|last=Medved|first=Michael|title=The Shadow Presidents: The Secret History of the Chief Executives and Their Top Aides|year=1979|publisher=Times Books|isbn=0812908163|url=https://archive.org/details/shadowpresidents00medv}}</ref> Eisenhower formalized this role, introducing the office of [[White House Chief of Staff]]&nbsp;– an idea he borrowed from the United States Army. Every president after [[Lyndon Johnson]] has appointed staff to this position.

As president, Eisenhower also initiated the "[[up or out]]" policy that still prevails in the US military. Officers who are passed over for promotion twice are then usually honorably but quickly discharged to make way for younger and more able officers.

On December 20, 1944, Eisenhower was appointed to the rank of [[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]], placing him in the company of George Marshall, [[Henry H. Arnold|Henry "Hap" Arnold]], and [[Douglas MacArthur]], the only four men to achieve the rank in World War II. Along with Omar Bradley, they were the only five men to achieve the rank since the August 5, 1888, death of [[Philip Sheridan]], and the only five men to hold the rank of [[Five-star rank|five-star general]]. The rank was created by an [[Act of Congress]] on a temporary basis, when [[Act of Congress|Public Law]] [[s:Public Law 78-482|78-482]] was passed on December 14, 1944,<ref name="PL78-482">{{cite web
 | url= http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Public_Law_78-482
 | title= Public Law 482
 | access-date= April 29, 2008
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071013204129/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Public_Law_78-482
 | archive-date= October 13, 2007
| url-status= live
 }} This law allowed only 75% of pay and allowances to the grade for those on the retired list.</ref> as a temporary rank, subject to reversion to permanent rank six months after the end of the war. The temporary rank was declared permanent on March 23, 1946, by Public Law 333 of the [[79th Congress]], which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq36-6.htm
 |title=Public Law 333, 79th Congress
 |date=April 11, 2007
|publisher=[[Naval Historical Center]]
 |access-date=October 22, 2007
|url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013212055/http://history.navy.mil/faqs/faq36-6.htm
 |archive-date=October 13, 2007
}} The retirement provisions were also applied to the World War II [[Commandant of the United States Marine Corps|Commandant of the Marine Corps]] and the [[Commandant of the Coast Guard]], both of whom held four-star rank.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Public Law 79-333|url=http://legisworks.org/congress/79/publaw-333.pdf|website=legisworks.org|publisher=Legis Works|access-date=October 19, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121013632/http://legisworks.org/congress/79/publaw-333.pdf|archive-date=November 21, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was created to give the most senior American commanders parity of rank with their British counterparts holding the ranks of [[Field marshal (United Kingdom)|field marshal]] and [[Admiral of the fleet (Royal Navy)|admiral of the fleet]].

{{multiple image
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Eisenhower founded [[People to People International]] in 1956, believing that citizen interaction would promote cultural interaction and [[world peace]]. The program includes a [[People to People Student Ambassadors|student ambassador component]], which sends American youth on educational trips to other countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Heritage |url=http://www.peopletopeople.com/AboutUs/Pages/OurHeritage.aspx |publisher=People to People International |access-date=September 29, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090301050108/http://www.peopletopeople.com/AboutUs/Pages/OurHeritage.aspx |archive-date=March 1, 2009 }}</ref>

During his second term as president, Eisenhower awarded a series of specially designed US Mint presidential appreciation medals. Eisenhower presented the medal to individuals as an expression of his appreciation.<ref name=Gomez>{{cite book|last=Gomez|first=Darryl|title=Authoritative Numismatic Reference: Presidential Medal of Appreciation Award Medals 1958–1963 |year=2015 |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |isbn=978-1511786744}}</ref> The development of the appreciation medals was initiated by the White House and executed by the [[United States Mint]], through the [[Philadelphia Mint]]. The medals were struck from September 1958 through October 1960. A total of twenty designs are cataloged with a total mintage of 9,858. Prior to the end of his second term as president, 1,451 medals were turned in to the Bureau of the Mint and destroyed.<ref name="Gomez" /> The Eisenhower appreciation medals are part of the Presidential Medal of Appreciation Award Medal Series.<ref name="Gomez" />

=== Tributes and memorials ===
{{Main|List of memorials to Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
[[File:1974S Eisenhower Obverse.jpg|thumb|The Eisenhower dollar was the official dollar coin from 1971 to 1978.]]
The Interstate Highway System is officially known as the "Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways". It was inspired in part by Eisenhower's experiences in World War II, where he recognized the advantages of the [[autobahn]] system in Germany.<ref name=archivesIHS /> Commemorative signs reading "Eisenhower Interstate System" and bearing Eisenhower's permanent [[General of the Army (United States)|5-star rank]] insignia were introduced in 1993 and now are displayed throughout the Interstate System. Several highways are also named for him, including the [[Interstate 290 (Illinois)|Eisenhower Expressway]] (Interstate 290) near Chicago, the [[Eisenhower Tunnel]] on [[Interstate 70]] west of [[Denver]], and [[Interstate 80 in California]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Dwight D. Eisenhower Highway|url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/ddehwy.cfm|website=Federal Highway Administration|access-date=August 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825182935/https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/ddehwy.cfm|archive-date=August 25, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy]] is a senior war college of the Department of Defense's [[National Defense University]] in Washington, DC. Eisenhower graduated from this school when it was known as the Army Industrial College.

Eisenhower was honored on the [[Eisenhower dollar]], minted from 1971 to 1978. His centenary was honored on the [[Eisenhower commemorative dollar]] issued in 1990.

In 1969 four major record companies&nbsp;– [[ABC Records]], [[MGM Records]], [[Buddha Records]] and [[Caedmon Audio]]&nbsp;– released tribute albums in Eisenhower's honor.<ref>{{cite news |url={{GBurl|id=ySgEAAAAMBAJ|p=3}} |title=Record Companies Run With Eisenhower Tribute Albums |magazine=Billboard |date=April 12, 1969 |access-date=December 2, 2015}}</ref>

In 1999, the [[United States Congress]] created the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial]] Commission, to create an enduring [[National memorial (United States)|national memorial]] in Washington, D.C. In 2009 the commission chose the architect [[Frank Gehry]] to design the memorial.<ref>{{Cite news | title=Frank Gehry to design Eisenhower Memorial | url=https://www.bizjournals.com/albuquerque/stories/2009/03/30/daily41.html | work=[[American City Business Journals]] | date=April 1, 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404031334/http://www.bizjournals.com/albuquerque/stories/2009/03/30/daily41.html | archive-date=April 4, 2009 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="WPmemorial">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/01/AR2009040101880.html
 |title=Architect Gehry Gets Design Gig For Eisenhower Memorial
 |last=Trescott
 |first=Jacqueline
 |date=April 2, 2009
|newspaper=The Washington Post
|access-date=August 26, 2017
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703034223/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/01/AR2009040101880.html
 |archive-date=July 3, 2017
|url-status=live
 }}</ref> The groundbreaking ceremony of the memorial was held on November 3, 2017, and was dedicated on September 17, 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Horan|first=Tim|date=May 8, 2020|title=Eisenhower Memorial in D.C. is complete. Coronavirus delays dedication to September|work=The Wichita Eagle|url=https://www.kansas.com/news/coronavirus/article242601951.html#adnrb=900000|access-date=May 8, 2020}}</ref><ref name=program>{{Cite web  |title=Dedication Of Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial  |url=https://eisenhowermemorial.gov/sites/default/files/public/press/Dedication%20Ceremony%20Program_FINAL_200915_0.pdf  |website=Eisenhower Memorial Commission  |access-date=April 9, 2023  |archive-date=October 22, 2020  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022183641/https://eisenhowermemorial.gov/sites/default/files/public/press/Dedication%20Ceremony%20Program_FINAL_200915_0.pdf  |url-status=dead }}</ref> It stands on a {{convert|4|acre|adj=on}} site near the [[National Mall]] on Maryland Avenue, across the street from the [[National Air and Space Museum]].<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bizjournals.com/washington/stories/2010/01/18/daily80.html | title=Gilbane to manage design and construction of Eisenhower Memorial | last=Plumb | first=Tiereny | date=January 22, 2010 | work=[[American City Business Journals]]}}</ref>

In December 1999 he was listed on [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th century]]. In 2009 he was named to the [[World Golf Hall of Fame]] in the Lifetime Achievement category for his contributions to the sport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pgatour.com/2009/r/06/26/wghof_eisenhower/index.html |title=President Eisenhower named to World Golf Hall of Fame |publisher=PGA Tour |access-date=May 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629071851/http://www.pgatour.com/2009/r/06/26/wghof_eisenhower/index.html |archive-date=June 29, 2009 }}</ref> In 1973, he was inducted into the [[Hall of Great Westerners]] of the [[National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hall of Great Westerners |url=https://nationalcowboymuseum.org/hall-of-great-westerners/ |website=National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum |access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref> On 27 October 2023, Fort Gordon was redesignated [[Fort Eisenhower]].{{efn| name=fortEisenhower27Oct23 |1= Redesignation to Fort Eisenhower was on 27 October 2023.<ref name= redesignationCeremony >[https://www.dvidshub.net/webcast/33049 (27 Oct 2023) Fort Eisenhower redesignation ceremony]</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/plans-are-coming-together-for-fort-gordon-renaming-ceremony/ar-AA18FB63 |title=Plans are coming together for Fort Gordon renaming ceremony |work=MSN |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317004022/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/plans-are-coming-together-for-fort-gordon-renaming-ceremony/ar-AA18FB63 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name= redesignation >{{cite news |first=Herb |last=Scribner |url=https://www.axios.com/2023/03/25/fort-hood-new-name-name-fort-cavazos |date=25 March 2023 |title=6 Army bases named after Confederate leaders get dates for new names |work=Axios |access-date=27 April 2023 |archive-date=18 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418113618/https://www.axios.com/2023/03/25/fort-hood-new-name-name-fort-cavazos |url-status=live }}</ref>