Feminism

=== Cinema ===
{{main|Feminist film theory}}
{{see also|Women's cinema}}
[[File:Faten_Hamama_1962.jpg|thumb|272x272px|[[Faten Hamama]] (1931–2015), Egyptian film legend, inspired women all over the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women's Activism NYC |url=https://www.womensactivism.nyc/stories/9713 |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=www.womensactivism.nyc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-05-27 |title=Remembering Films by Faten Hamama Championing Women's Rights {{!}} Egyptian Streets |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2019/05/27/remembering-4-films-by-faten-hamama-championing-womens-rights/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |language=en-US}}</ref>]]
Feminist cinema, advocating or illustrating feminist perspectives, arose largely with the development of [[feminist film theory]] in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Women who were radicalized during the 1960s by political debate and sexual liberation; but the failure of radicalism to produce substantive change for women galvanized them to form consciousness-raising groups and set about analysing, from different perspectives, dominant cinema's construction of women.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hayward|first=Susan|title=Cinema Studies – The Key Concepts|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2006|edition=3rd|pages=134–5}}</ref> Differences were particularly marked between [[Feminist film theory#History|feminists on either side of the Atlantic]]. 1972 saw the first feminist film festivals in the U.S. and U.K. as well as the first feminist film journal, ''[[Women & Film]]''. Trailblazers from this period included [[Claire Johnston (film theorist)|Claire Johnston]] and [[Laura Mulvey]], who also organized the Women's Event at the [[Edinburgh International Film Festival|Edinburgh Film Festival]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Erens|first=Patricia Brett|title=Issues in Feminist Film Criticism|publisher=[[Wiley & Sons]]|year=1991|isbn=9780253206107|pages=270}}</ref> Other theorists making a powerful impact on feminist film include [[Teresa de Lauretis]], Anneke Smelik and [[Kaja Silverman]]. Approaches in philosophy and psychoanalysis fuelled feminist film criticism, feminist independent film and feminist distribution.

It has been argued that there are two distinct approaches to independent, theoretically inspired feminist filmmaking. 'Deconstruction' concerns itself with analysing and breaking down codes of mainstream cinema, aiming to create a different relationship between the spectator and dominant cinema. The second approach, a feminist counterculture, embodies feminine writing to investigate a specifically feminine cinematic language.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Kuhn |editor1-first=A. |editor2-last=Radstone |editor2-first=S. |title=Women's Companion to International Film |url=https://archive.org/details/womenscompaniont00kuhn |url-access=registration |publisher=Virago |year=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/womenscompaniont00kuhn/page/153 153]|isbn=9781853810817 }}</ref> [[Bracha L. Ettinger]] invented a field of notions and concepts that serve the research of cinema from feminine perspective: [[The Matrixial Gaze]].<ref>Bracha L. Ettinger, Régard et éspace-de-bord matrixiels. Brussels: La Lettre Volée, 1999</ref><ref>Bracha L. Ettinger, Matrixial Subjectivity, Aesthetics, Ethics. Vol 1: 1990–2000. Selected papers edited with Introduction by Griselda Pollock. Pelgrave Macmillan 2020</ref> Ettinger's language include original concepts to discover feminine perspectives.<ref>Bracha L. Ettinger. A. And My Heart Wound-Space. Leeds: Wild Pansy Press, 2015.</ref> Many writers in the fields of film theory and contemporary art<ref>[Gutierrez-Albilla, Julian. Aesthetics, Ethics and Trauma in the Cinema of Pedro Almodovar. Edinburch University Press, 2017.</ref><ref>Gardiner, Kyoko. "Ettingerian reading of feminine-matrixial encounters in Duras/Rennais' Hiroshima Mon Amour". In: Ayelet Zohar, ed. PostGender. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009.</ref><ref>de Zegher, Catherine M., ed. Inside the Visible. Boston: The Institute of Contemporary Art/Cambridge and London: MIT Press, 1996</ref><ref>[[Pollock, Griselda]]. Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum. Taylor and Francis, 2010.</ref><ref>[[Carol Armstrong]] and [[Catherine de Zegher]]. Women Artists at the Millennium. October Books/MIT Press, 2006 2006.</ref><ref>Vandenbroeck, Paul. The Glimpse of the Concealed. Royal Museum of Fine Art, Antwerp, 2017.</ref> are using the Ettingerian matrixial sphere (matricial sphere).<ref>Butler, Judith. "Bracha's Eurydice". In: Drawing Papers, no 24: 31–35, 2001.</ref>

During the 1930s–1950s heyday of the big Hollywood studios, the status of women in the industry was abysmal.<ref>Giannetti L, ''Understanding Movies'', 7th ed. Prentice-Hall 1996;416.</ref> Since then female directors such as [[Sally Potter]], [[Catherine Breillat]], [[Claire Denis]] and [[Jane Campion]] have made art movies, and directors like [[Kathryn Bigelow]] and [[Patty Jenkins]] have had mainstream success. This progress stagnated in the 1990s, and men outnumber women five to one in behind the camera roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2018/01/the-brutal-math-of-gender-inequality-in-hollywood/550232/ |title=The Brutal Math of Gender Inequality in Hollywood |work=The Atlantic |date=11 January 2018|author=Derek Thompson}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://namesorts.com/2014/04/16/assessing-the-gender-gap-in-the-film-industry|title=Assessing the Gender Gap in the Film Industry|publisher=NamSor Blog|date=16 April 2014}}</ref>