Saint Peter

===Catholic Church===
{{Main|Primacy of Simon Peter|Papal primacy}}
[[File:Statua di San Pietro realizzata da Giuseppe De Fabris - Piazza di San Pietro.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of St. Peter in [[St. Peter's Square]] at the Vatican]]

According to Catholic belief, Simon Peter was distinguished by Jesus to hold the [[Primacy of Simon Peter|first place of honor and authority]]. Also in Catholic belief, Peter was, as the first Bishop of Rome, the first [[Pope]]. Furthermore, they consider every Pope to be Peter's successor and the rightful superior of all other [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishops]].<ref name=CEPope>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Pope|author=Joyce, G. H.}}</ref> However, Peter never bore the title of "Pope" or "Vicar of Christ" in the sense the Catholic Church considers Peter the first Pope.{{refn|{{harvnb|Hitchcock|Tutu|Esposito|2004|p=281}} note "Some (Christian communities) had been founded by Peter, the disciple Jesus designated as the founder of his church. ... Once the position was institutionalized, historians looked back and recognized Peter as the first pope of the Christian church in Rome"}}

The Catholic Church's recognition of Peter as head of [[Churches Militant, Penitent, and Triumphant#Catholic Church|its church on earth]] (with Christ being its [[heaven]]ly head) is based on its interpretation of passages from the [[canonical gospels]] of the [[New Testament]], as well as [[sacred tradition]].

====John 21:15–17====
The first passage is John 21:15–17 which is: "Feed my lambs... Tend my sheep... feed my sheep"<ref>{{Bibleref2|John|21:15–17}}</ref> (within the Greek it is Ποίμαινε i.e., to feed and rule [as a Shepherd] v. 16, while Βόσκε i.e., to feed for v.15 & v. 17)<ref>[http://tr.biblos.com/john/21.htm "Greek New Testament"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705054846/http://tr.biblos.com/john/21.htm |date=5 July 2011 }} Greek New Testament. John xxi 11 June 2010.</ref>—which is seen by Catholics as Christ promising the spiritual supremacy to Peter. The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' of 1913 sees in this passage Jesus "charging [Peter] with the superintendency of all his sheep, without exception; and consequently of his whole flock, that is, of his own church".<ref name= CEPope/>

==== Matthew 10:2 ====
In this passage, the evangelist writes, "first, Simon called Peter..." The Greek word for "first" (protos), derived from the ancient Greek πρῶτος, can mean primacy in foundation, not just in a numerical sense.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Horn |first=Trent |date=May–June 2023 |editor-last=Ryland |editor-first=Tim |title=Quick Questions |journal=Catholic Answers: The Magazine of Apologetics and Evangelization |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=44–45}}</ref>

====Matthew 16:18====
Another passage is Matthew 16:18:
{{blockquote|I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hell will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.|Matthew 16:18–19 (NIV)<ref name="auto1">{{Bibleref2|Matthew|16:18}}</ref>}}

=====Etymology=====

In the story of the [[First disciples of Jesus|calling of the disciples]], Jesus addresses Simon Peter with the Greek term Κηφᾶς (''Cephas''), a Hellenised form of Aramaic '''ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ''' (''keepa''), which means "rock",<ref>{{cite web |title=Strong's Greek: 2786. Κηφᾶς (Képhas) – "a rock," Cephas, a name given to the apostle Peter |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2786.htm |website=biblehub.com |access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> a term that before was not used as a proper name:

{{blockquote|:ἐμβλέψας αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν Σὺ εἶ Σίμων ὁ υἱὸς Ἰωάννου, σὺ κληθήσῃ '''Κηφᾶς''' ὃ ἑρμηνεύεται Πέτρος.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/text/john/1-42.htm|title=John 1:42 Greek Text Analysis|website=biblehub.com}}</ref>

:Having looked at him, Jesus said, "You are Simon the son of John; you will be called '''Cephas'''," which means ''Petros'' ("rock").| John 1:42}}

Jesus later alludes to this nickname after Peter declares Jesus to be the Messiah:

{{blockquote|:κἀγὼ δέ σοι λέγω ὅτι σὺ εἶ '''Πέτρος''' [''Petros''] καὶ ἐπὶ ταύτῃ τῇ '''πέτρᾳ''' [''petra''] οἰκοδομήσω μου τὴν ἐκκλησίαν, καὶ πύλαι ᾅδου οὐ κατισχύσουσιν αὐτῆς.{{refn|group=note|{{lang|grc|Πέτρᾳ}} (''petra'' "rock") is the feminine form of the Greek noun ({{lang|grc|Πέτρος}}) (''Petros''), which represents the masculine form; the two forms are identical in meaning.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2786.htm |title=Cephas (Aramaic for rock) |access-date=20 February 2019 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331130125/https://biblehub.com/greek/2786.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Cephas">({{lang-he|כֵּיפׇא \ כֵּיף}}) is an indirect transliteration of the Syriac ({{lang|syc|ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ}}), ({{lang-el|Κηφᾶς}}) is a direct transliteration of the Syriac ({{lang|syc|ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ}}), and ({{lang-he|כֵּיפׇא \ כֵּיף}}) is a direct transliteration of the Greek. The Hebrew word ({{lang-he|כאפא}}) is also a direct transliteration of the Syriac. (''cƒ.'' ''Interlinear Peshitta Aramaic New Testament Bible'' [http://peshitta.info/gospel/matthew_16.htm Matthew xvi. 18] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824080209/http://peshitta.info/gospel/matthew_16.htm |date=24 August 2011 }}).</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peter-the-rock |title=Peter the Rock | website = Catholic Answers | date = 10 August 2004 |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119034546/http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peter-the-rock |archive-date=19 November 2011 |quote=And what does Kepha mean? It means a rock, the same as petra (It doesn't mean a little stone or a pebble) What Jesus said to Simon in Matthew 16:18 was this: 'You are Kepha, and on this kepha I will build my Church.'}}</ref>}}

:I also say to you now that you are '''Peter''', and on this '''rock''' I will build my Church, and the gates of [[Hades]] will not prevail against it.| Matthew 16:18<ref name="matthew1618greek">{{cite web |title=Matthew 16:18 |url=https://biblehub.com/text/matthew/16-18.htm |website=BibleHub |publisher=Online Parallel Bible Project |access-date=9 June 2019 |ref=matthew1618greek}}</ref>}}

The [[Peshitta]] [[Syriac versions of the Bible|Syriac]] version renders Jesus' words into [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]<ref name="aramaic">{{cite encyclopedia| encyclopedia =The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary|title=Aramaic|quote=It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Palestine in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73) |page=72|isbn=978-0-8028-2402-8|editor=Allen C. Myers|location= Grand Rapids, MI |publisher= William B. Eerdmans |year= 1987}}</ref> as follows:

{{blockquote|:ܐܳܦ݂ ܐܶܢܳܐ ܐܳܡܰܪ ܐ݈ܢܳܐ ܠܳܟ݂ ܕ݁ܰܐܢ݈ܬ݁ ܗ݈ܽܘ '''ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ''' ܘܥܰܠ ܗܳܕ݂ܶܐ '''ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ''' ܐܶܒ݂ܢܶܝܗ ܠܥܺܕ݈݁ܬ݁ܝ ܘܬ݂ܰܪܥܶܐ ܕ݁ܰܫܝܽܘܠ ܠܳܐ ܢܶܚܣܢܽܘܢܳܗ܂

:Also I say to you that you are '''''Keepa''''', and on this '''''keepa''''' I will build my Church, and the gates of [[Sheol]] not will subdue it.| Matthew 16:18<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.peshitta.org/pdf/Mattich16.pdf|title=Peshitta Matthew 16}}</ref>}}

[[Paul of Tarsus]] later uses the appellation Cephas in reference to Peter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/greek/strongs_2786.htm|title=Strong's Greek: 2786. Κηφᾶς (Képhas) -- 9 Occurrences|website=biblehub.com}}</ref>

=====Interpretation of Matthew 16:18=====
[[File:Petrus San Giovanni in Laterano 2006-09-07.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Saint Peter in the [[Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]] by [[Pierre-Étienne Monnot]]. Peter holds the Keys of Heaven.]]
To better understand what Christ meant, St. Basil elaborates:<ref name="Basil">Basil li. De poenit. cƒ. Matth. v. 14; Luke xxii. 19</ref>
{{blockquote|Though Peter be a rock, yet he is not a rock as Christ is. For Christ is the true unmoveable rock of himself, Peter is unmoveable by Christ the rock. For Jesus doth communicate and impart his dignities, not voiding himself of them, but holding them to himself, bestoweth them also upon others. He is the light, and yet you are the light: he is the Priest, and yet he maketh Priests: he is the rock, and he made a rock.| Basil li. De poenit. cƒ. Matt. v. 14; Luke 22:19}}

In reference to Peter's occupation before becoming an Apostle, the popes wear the [[Fisherman's Ring]], which bears an image of the saint casting his nets from a fishing boat. The keys used as a symbol of the pope's authority refer to the "keys of the kingdom of Heaven" promised to Peter.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matt.|16:18–19}}</ref> The terminology of this "commission" of Peter is unmistakably parallel to the commissioning of Eliakim ben Hilkiah in Isaiah 22:15–23.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Isaiah|22:15–23}}</ref> Peter is often depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian art holding a [[Key (lock)|key]] or a set of keys.

In the original [[Greek language|Greek]] the word translated as "Peter" is ''Πέτρος'' (Petros) and that translated as "rock" is ''πέτρα'' (petra), two words that, while not identical, give an impression of one of many times when Jesus used a play on words. Furthermore, since Jesus presumably spoke to Peter in their native [[Aramaic language]], he would have used ''kepha'' in both instances.<ref name="keating">{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peter-the-rock |title=Peter the Rock |publisher=Catholic.com |date=10 August 2004 |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119034546/http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peter-the-rock |archive-date=19 November 2011 }}</ref> [[Peshitta|The Peshitta Text]] and [[Peshitta#Old Syriac texts|the Old Syriac texts]] use the word "kepha" for both "Peter" and "rock" in Matthew 16:18.<ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.peshitta.org/pdf/Mattich16.pdf |chapter=The Preaching of Mattai, chapter 16 |title=Peshitta Aramaic/English Interlinear New Testament |access-date=2 April 2014}}</ref> John 1:42 says Jesus called Simon "Cephas", as Paul calls him in some letters.<ref>{{Bibleref2|John|1:42}}</ref> He was instructed by Christ to strengthen his brethren, i.e., the apostles.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Lk|22:31–32}}</ref> Peter also had a leadership role in the early Christian church at Jerusalem according to The Acts of the Apostles chapters 1–2, 10–11, and 15.

Early Catholic Latin and Greek writers (such as St. [[John Chrysostom]]) considered the "foundation rock" as applying to both Peter personally and his confession of faith (or the faith of his confession) symbolically, as well as seeing Christ's promise to apply more generally to his twelve apostles and the Church at large.<ref>{{Cite book|title="Peter's Primacy in the New Testament and the Early Tradition" in The Primacy of Peter|author=Veselin Kesich|year=1992|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press| pages= 61–66}}</ref> This "double meaning" interpretation is present in the current [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]].<ref>[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], Articles 424 and 552</ref>

Protestant arguments against the Catholic interpretation are largely based on the difference between the Greek words translated "Rock" in the Matthean passage. They often claim that in classical [[Attic Greek]] ''petros'' (masculine) generally meant "pebble", while ''petra'' (feminine) meant "boulder" or "cliff", and accordingly, taking Peter's name to mean "pebble", they argue that the "rock" in question cannot have been Peter, but something else, either Jesus himself, or the faith in Jesus that Peter had just professed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://spectrummagazine.org/article/2017/03/30/becoming-pebble-name-god-gave-simon|title=On Becoming a Pebble: The Name God Gave Simon|website=spectrummagazine.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.romancatholicism.co.uk/petrospetra.html|title=Did Jesus really say he would build his church on Peter? Petros or Petra?|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206131511/http://www.romancatholicism.co.uk/petrospetra.html|archive-date=6 February 2018}}</ref> These popular-level writings are disputed in similar popular-level Catholic writings.<ref>[http://patrickmadrid.blogspot.gr/2009/02/bam-bam-pebbles-argument-goes-down.html Patrick Madrid, Bam! Bam! The "Pebbles" Argument Goes Down] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206131538/http://patrickmadrid.blogspot.gr/2009/02/bam-bam-pebbles-argument-goes-down.html |date=6 February 2018 }} or [https://www.catholic.com/tract/peter-the-rock Catholic Answers Magazine, Peter the Rock] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814142703/https://www.catholic.com/tract/peter-the-rock |date=14 August 2017 }}</ref>

The New Testament was written in [[Koiné Greek]], not Attic Greek, and some authorities say no significant difference existed between the meanings of ''petros'' and ''petra''. So far from meaning a pebble was the word ''petros'' that [[Apollonius Rhodius]], a writer of Koiné Greek of the third century B.C., used it to refer to "a huge round ''boulder'', a terrible quoit of [[Ares]] [[Enyalius]]; four stalwart youths could not have raised it from the ground even a little".<ref>[http://www.theoi.com/Text/ApolloniusRhodius3.html translation by R.C. Seaton] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512144343/http://www.theoi.com/Text/ApolloniusRhodius3.html |date=12 May 2017 }} of [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''[[Argonautica]]'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0227%3Abook%3D3%3Acard%3D1245 3:1365–1367] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518190325/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0227:book%3D3:card%3D1245 |date=18 May 2021 }}:
:λάζετο δ᾽ ἐκ πεδίοιο μέγαν περιηγέα ''πέτρον'', 
:δεινὸν Ἐνυαλίου σόλον Ἄρεος: οὔ κέ μιν ἄνδρες 
:αἰζηοὶ πίσυρες γαίης ἄπο τυτθὸν ἄειραν.</ref>

[[File:Gesupietrochiave.jpg|thumb|''Christ Handing the Keys to St Peter'', by [[Pietro Perugino]] (1481–82)]]
The feminine noun ''petra'' (πέτρα in Greek), translated as ''rock'' in the phrase "on this rock I will build my church", is also used at 1 Cor. 10:4 in describing Jesus Christ, which reads: "They all ate the same spiritual food and drank the same spiritual drink; for they drank from the spiritual rock that accompanied them, and that rock was Christ."<ref>{{Bibleref2|1Cor|10:4||1 Cor. 10:4}}</ref>

Although Matthew 16 is used as a primary proof-text for the Catholic doctrine of Papal supremacy, some Protestant scholars say that prior to the Reformation of the 16th century, Matthew 16 was very rarely used to support papal claims, despite it being well documented as being used in the 3rd century by Stephen of Rome against Cyprian of Carriage in a "passionate disagreement" about baptism and in the 4th century by Pope Damasus as a claim to primacy as a lesson of the Arian Controversy for stricter discipline and centralised control.<ref>Chadwick, The Early Christian Church. p.237 p.238</ref> Their position is that most of the early and medieval Church interpreted the "rock" as being a reference either to Christ or to Peter's faith, not Peter himself. They understand Jesus' remark to have been his affirmation of Peter's testimony that Jesus was the Son of God.<ref>Mathison, Keith A., [https://books.google.com/books?id=w_PHAGr2TfgC ''The Shape of Sola Scriptura''], pp. 184–85.</ref>

Despite this claim, many Fathers saw a connection between Matthew 16:18 and the primacy of Peter and his office, such as [[Tertullian]], writing: "The Lord said to Peter, 'On this rock I will build my Church, I have given you the keys of the kingdom of heaven [and] whatever you shall have bound or loosed on earth will be bound or loosed in heaven' [Matt. 16:18–19]. ...Upon you, he says, I will build my Church; and I will give to you the keys, not to the Church."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peters-primacy|title=Peter's Primacy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018060632/http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peters-primacy|archive-date=18 October 2012}}</ref>

====Epistles of Paul====
Paul's [[Epistle to the Romans]], written about AD 57.<ref name="Franzen, p.26"/> greets some fifty people in Rome by name,<ref name="bibleverse||Romans|16"/> but not Peter [[Incident at Antioch|whom he knew]]. There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two-year stay there in {{bibleverse|Acts||28}}, about AD 60–62. Some Church historians consider Peter and Paul to have been [[martyr]]ed under the reign of Nero,<ref name="ODCC self">"Paul, St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref><ref name="Pennington, p. 2">Pennington, p. 2</ref>{{Citation not found|date=December 2022}}<ref name="St-Paul-Outside-the-Walls homepage">{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/various/basiliche/san_paolo/en/basilica/tomba.htm |title=Papal Basilica – Saint Paul Outside-the-Walls |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090720031958/https://www.vatican.va/various/basiliche/san_paolo/en/basilica/tomba.htm |archive-date=20 July 2009 }}</ref> around AD 64 or 68.{{refn | group = note | name=historians|Historians debate whether the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva's modification of the [[Fiscus Judaicus]] in 96. From then on, practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not.}}<ref name="Wylen, pp.190-192">Wylen, pp. 190–192</ref><ref name="Dunn, pp. 33-34">Dunn, pp. 33–34</ref>

====Protestant rejection of Catholic claims====
Other theologically conservative Christians, including [[Confessional Lutherans]], also rebut comments made by Karl Keating and D.A. Carson who claim that there is no distinction between the words ''petros'' and ''petra'' in Koine Greek. The Lutheran theologians state that the dictionaries of [[Koine Greek|Koine/NT Greek]], including the authoritative<ref>Rykle Borger, "Remarks of an Outsider about Bauer's Worterbuch, BAGD, BDAG, and Their Textual Basis," Biblical Greek Language and Lexicography: Essays in Honor of Frederick W. Danker, Bernard A. Tayler (et al. eds.) pp. 32–47.</ref> [[Bauer lexicon|Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich Lexicon]], indeed list both words and the passages that give different meanings for each. The Lutheran theologians further note that:

{{blockquote|We honor Peter and in fact some of our churches are named after him, but he was not the first pope, nor was he Roman Catholic. If you read his first letter, you will see that he did not teach a Roman hierarchy, but that all Christians are royal priests. The same keys given to Peter in Matthew 16 are given to the whole church of believers in Matthew 18.<ref name="WELS">{{cite web|url=http://arkiv.lbk.cc/faq/site.pl@1518cutopic_topicid19cuitem_itemid6106.htm |title=WELS Topical Q&A: Responses to previous questions |publisher=Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod |date=2013-08-08 |access-date=2015-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808194544/http://arkiv.lbk.cc/faq/site.pl%401518cutopic_topicid19cuitem_itemid6106.htm |archive-date=8 August 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>}}

[[File:Dirck van Baburen Saint Peter.jpg|thumb|''Saint Peter'' by [[Dirck van Baburen]] (c. 1615–1620)]] 
[[Oscar Cullmann]], a Lutheran theologian and distinguished Church historian, disagrees with Luther and the Protestant reformers who held that by "rock" Christ did not mean Peter, but meant either himself or the faith of His followers. He believes the meaning of the original Aramaic is very clear: that "Kepha" was the Aramaic word for "rock", and that it was also the name by which Christ called Peter.<ref name=Time/>

Yet, Cullmann sharply rejects the Catholic claim that Peter began the papal succession. He writes: "In the life of Peter there is no starting point for a chain of succession to the leadership of the church at large." While he believes the Matthew text is entirely valid and is in no way spurious, he says it cannot be used as "warrant of the papal succession."<ref name=Time>{{Cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890753-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622111607/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890753-1,00.html |archive-date=22 June 2011 |title=Religion: Peter & the Rock |publisher=Time |date=7 December 1953 |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref> Cullmann concludes that while Peter ''was'' the original head of the apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession.<ref name="Time" />

There are other Protestant scholars who also partially defend the historical Catholic position about "Rock."<ref>D. A. Carson in ''The Expositor's Bible Commentary'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984).</ref> Taking a somewhat different approach from Cullman, they point out that the Gospel of Matthew was not written in the classical Attic form of Greek, but in the Hellenistic [[Koine Greek|Koine dialect]] in which there is no distinction in meaning between ''petros'' and ''petra''. Moreover, even in Attic Greek, in which the regular meaning of ''petros'' was a smallish "stone", there are instances of its use to refer to larger rocks, as in [[Sophocles]], ''[[Oedipus at Colonus]]'' v. 1595, where ''petros'' refers to a boulder used as a landmark, obviously something more than a pebble. In any case, a ''petros''/''petra'' distinction is irrelevant considering the Aramaic language in which the phrase might well have been spoken. In Greek, of any period, the feminine noun ''petra'' could not be used as the given name of a male, which may explain the use of ''Petros'' as the Greek word with which to translate Aramaic ''Kepha''.<ref name="keating" />

Yet, still other Protestant scholars believe that Jesus in fact ''did'' mean to single out Peter as the very rock which he will build upon, but that the passage does nothing to indicate a continued succession of Peter's implied position. They assert that Matthew uses the demonstrative pronoun ''taute'', which allegedly means "this very" or "this same", when he refers to the rock on which Jesus' church will be built. He also uses the Greek word for "and", ''kai''. It is alleged that when a demonstrative pronoun is used with ''kai'', the pronoun refers back to the preceding noun. The second rock Jesus refers to must then be the same rock as the first one; and if Peter is the first rock, he must also be the second.<ref>''Jesus, Peter & the Keys: A Scriptural Handbook on the Papacy''</ref>

Unlike Oscar Cullmann, [[Confessional Lutherans]] and many other Protestant apologists agree that it's meaningless to elaborate the meaning of "Rock" by looking at the Aramaic language. While the Jews spoke mostly Aramaic at home, in public they usually spoke Greek. The few Aramaic words spoken by Jesus in public were unusual, which is why they are noted as such. And most importantly the New Testament was revealed in Koine Greek, ''not'' Aramaic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wlsessays.net/files/GawrischDoctrine.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203191915/http://www.wlsessays.net/files/GawrischDoctrine.pdf|title=The Doctrine of Church and Ministry in the Life of the Church Today|archive-date=3 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wlsessays.net/files/BalgeMinistry.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203192344/http://www.wlsessays.net/files/BalgeMinistry.pdf|title=Cross-Cultural And Multicultural Ministry in the New Testament|archive-date=3 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.graceway.com/articles/article_017.html|title=Some Thoughts on Matthew 16:18|access-date=4 August 2014|archive-date=16 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216191505/http://www.graceway.com/articles/article_017.html}}</ref>

Lutheran historians even report that the Catholic church itself did not, at least unanimously, regard Peter as the rock until the 1870s:
{{blockquote|Rome's rule for explaining the Scriptures and determining doctrine is the [[Profession of faith (Catholic Church)#Tridentine Creed|Creed]] of [[Pius IV]]. This Creed binds Rome to explain the Scriptures only according to the unanimous consent of the Fathers. In the year 1870 when the Fathers gathered and the pope declared his infallibility, the cardinals were not in agreement on Matthew 16, 18. They had five different interpretations. Seventeen insisted, Peter is the rock. Sixteen held that Christ is the rock. Eight were emphatic that the whole apostolic college is the rock. Forty-four said, Peter's faith is the rock, The remainder looked upon the whole body of believers as the rock. – And yet Rome taught and still teaches that Peter is the rock.<ref name=WLS-Eckert>{{cite web|url=http://www.wlsessays.net/files/EckertSpecific.pdf |title=The Specific Functions of the Church in the World |last1=Eckert |first1=Harold H. |publisher=Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary |access-date=4 Feb 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203182715/http://www.wlsessays.net/files/EckertSpecific.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>}}