Latin Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Grammar== {{Main|Latin grammar|Latin syntax}} Latin is a [[synthetic language|synthetic]], [[fusional language]] in the terminology of linguistic typology. Words involve an objective semantic element and markers (usually suffixes) specifying the grammatical use of the word, expressing [[grammatical gender|gender]], [[grammatical number|number]], and [[grammatical case|case]] in [[adjective]]s, [[noun]]s, and [[pronoun]]s (''[[declension]]'') and verbs to denote [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical voice|voice]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], and [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] (''[[grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]''). Some words are uninflected and undergo neither process, such as adverbs, prepositions, and interjections. Latin inflection can result in words with much ambiguity: For example, {{lang|la|amābit}}, "he/she/it will love", is formed from {{lang|la|amā-}}, a future tense morpheme {{lang|la|-bi-}} and a third person singular morpheme, {{lang|la|-t}}, the last of which {{lang|la|-t}} does not express masculine, feminine, or neuter gender. A major task in understanding Latin phrases and clauses is to clarify such ambiguities by an analysis of context. ===Nouns=== {{Main|Latin declension}} A regular Latin noun belongs to one of five main declensions, a group of nouns with similar inflected forms. The declensions are identified by the genitive singular form of the noun. * The first declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''a'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-ae''. * The second declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''us'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-i''. * The third declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''i'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-is''. * The fourth declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''u'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-ūs''. * The fifth declension, with a predominant ending letter of ''e'', is signified by the genitive singular ending of ''-ei''. There are seven Latin noun cases, which also apply to adjectives and pronouns and mark a noun's syntactic role in the sentence by means of inflections. Thus, [[word order]] is not as important in Latin as it is in English, which is less inflected. The general structure and word order of a Latin sentence can therefore vary. The cases are as follows: # [[Nominative case|Nominative]] – used when the noun is the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] or a [[predicate nominative]]. The thing or person acting: the girl ran: {{lang|la|puella cucurrit,}} or {{lang|la|cucurrit puella}} # [[Genitive case|Genitive]] – used when the noun is the possessor of or connected with an object: "the horse of the man", or "the man's horse"; in both instances, the word ''man'' would be in the [[genitive case]] when it is translated into Latin. It also indicates the [[partitive]], in which the material is quantified: "a group of people"; "a number of gifts": ''people'' and ''gifts'' would be in the genitive case. Some nouns are genitive with special verbs and adjectives: The cup is full of wine. ({{lang|la|Poculum plēnum vīnī est.}}) The master of the slave had beaten him. ({{lang|la|Dominus servī eum verberāverat.}}) # [[Dative case|Dative]] – used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain prepositions, and if it is used as agent, reference, or even possessor: The merchant hands the [[stola]] to the woman. ({{lang|la|Mercātor fēminae stolam trādit.}}) # [[Accusative case|Accusative]] – used when the noun is the direct object of the subject, as the object of a preposition demonstrating place to which, and sometimes to indicate a duration of time: The man killed the boy. ({{lang|la|Vir puerum necāvit.}}) # [[Ablative case|Ablative]] – used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, [[agent (grammar)|agent]] or [[instrumental case|instrument]] or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions, and to indicate a specific place in time.; adverbial: You walked with the boy. ({{lang|la|Cum puerō ambulāvistī.}}) # [[Vocative case|Vocative]] – used when the noun is used in a direct address. The vocative form of a noun is often the same as the nominative, with the exception of second-declension nouns ending in {{lang|la|-us}}. The {{lang|la|-us}} becomes an {{lang|la|-e}} in the vocative singular. If it ends in {{lang|la|-ius}} (such as {{lang|la|fīlius}}), the ending is just {{lang|la|-ī}} ({{lang|la|filī}}), as distinct from the nominative plural ({{lang|la|filiī}}) in the vocative singular: "Master!" shouted the slave. ({{lang|la|"Domine!" clāmāvit servus.}}) # [[Locative case|Locative]] – used to indicate a location (corresponding to the English "in" or "at"). It is far less common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities and small towns and islands along with a few common nouns, such as the words {{lang|la|domus}} (house), {{lang|la|humus}} (ground), and {{lang|la|rus}} (country). In the singular of the first and second declensions, its form coincides with the genitive ({{lang|la|Roma}} becomes {{lang|la|Romae}}, "in Rome"). In the plural of all declensions and the singular of the other declensions, it coincides with the ablative ({{lang|la|Athēnae}} becomes {{lang|la|Athēnīs}}, "at Athens"). In the fourth-declension word {{lang|la|domus}}, the locative form, {{lang|la|domī}} ("at home") differs from the standard form of all other cases. Latin lacks both definite and indefinite [[article (grammar)|articles]] so {{lang|la|puer currit}} can mean either "the boy is running" or "a boy is running". ===Adjectives=== {{Main|Latin declension#Adjectives}} There are two types of regular Latin adjectives: first- and second-declension and third-declension. They are so-called because their forms are similar or identical to first- and second-declension and third-declension nouns, respectively. Latin adjectives also have [[comparative and superlative]] forms. There are also a number of Latin [[participles]]. Latin numbers are sometimes declined as adjectives. See ''[[Latin#Numbers|Numbers]]'' below. <em>First- and second-declension adjectives</em> are declined like first-declension nouns for the feminine forms and like second-declension nouns for the masculine and neuter forms. For example, for {{lang|la|mortuus, mortua, mortuum}} (dead), {{lang|la|mortua}} is declined like a regular first-declension noun (such as {{lang|la|puella}} (girl)), {{lang|la|mortuus}} is declined like a regular second-declension masculine noun (such as {{lang|la|dominus}} (lord, master)), and {{lang|la|mortuum}} is declined like a regular second-declension neuter noun (such as {{lang|la|auxilium}} (help)). <em>Third-declension adjectives</em> are mostly declined like normal third-declension nouns, with a few exceptions. In the plural nominative neuter, for example, the ending is ''-ia'' ({{lang|la|omnia}} (all, everything)), and for third-declension nouns, the plural nominative neuter ending is ''-a'' or ''-ia'' ({{lang|la|capita}} (heads), {{lang|la|animalia}} (animals)) They can have one, two or three forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative singular. ====Participles==== Latin participles, like English participles, are formed from a verb. There are a few main types of participles: Present Active Participles, Perfect Passive Participles, Future Active Participles, and Future Passive Participles. ===Prepositions=== Latin sometimes uses prepositions, depending on the type of prepositional phrase being used. Most prepositions are followed by a noun in either the accusative or ablative case: "apud puerum" (with the boy), with "puerum" being the accusative form of "puer", boy, and "sine puero" (without the boy), "puero" being the ablative form of "puer". A few [[adposition]]s, however, govern a noun in the genitive (such as "gratia" and "tenus"). ===Verbs=== {{Main|Latin grammar|Latin conjugation}} A regular verb in Latin belongs to one of four main [[Latin conjugation|conjugations]]. A conjugation is "a class of verbs with similar inflected forms."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Conjugation | encyclopedia=Webster's II new college dictionary | location=Boston | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | year=1999}}</ref> The conjugations are identified by the last letter of the verb's present stem. The present stem can be found by omitting the -{{lang|la|re}} (-{{lang|la|rī}} in deponent verbs) ending from the present infinitive form. The infinitive of the first conjugation ends in {{lang|la|-ā-re}} or {{lang|la|-ā-ri}} (active and passive respectively): {{lang|la|amāre}}, "to love", {{lang|la|hortārī}}, "to exhort"; of the second conjugation by {{lang|la|-ē-re}} or {{lang|la|-ē-rī}}: {{lang|la|monēre}}, "to warn", {{lang|la|verērī}}, "to fear;" of the third conjugation by {{lang|la|-ere}}, {{lang|la|-ī}}: {{lang|la|dūcere}}, "to lead", {{lang|la|ūtī}}, "to use"; of the fourth by {{lang|la|-ī-re}}, {{lang|la|-ī-rī}}: {{lang|la|audīre}}, "to hear", {{lang|la|experīrī}}, "to attempt".<ref name="Wheelock 2011">{{cite book|title=Wheelock's Latin|last=Wheelock|first=Frederic M.|publisher=CollinsReference|edition=7th|location=New York|date=2011}}</ref> The stem categories descend from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] and can therefore be compared to similar conjugations in other Indo-European languages. [[Regular and irregular verbs|Irregular verbs]] are verbs that do not follow the regular conjugations in the formation of the inflected form. Irregular verbs in Latin are ''esse'', "to be"; ''velle'', "to want"; ''ferre'', "to carry"; ''edere'', "to eat"; ''dare'', "to give"; ''ire'', "to go"; ''posse'', "to be able"; ''fieri'', "to happen"; and their compounds.<ref name="Wheelock 2011"/> There are six general [[grammatical tense|tenses]] in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect), three [[grammatical mood|moods]] (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the [[infinitive]], [[participle]], [[gerund]], [[gerundive]] and [[supine]]), three [[grammatical person|persons]] (first, second and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two [[grammatical voice|voices]] (active and passive) and two [[grammatical aspect|aspects]] ([[perfective and imperfective]]). Verbs are described by four principal parts: # The first principal part is the first-person singular, present tense, active voice, indicative mood form of the verb. If the verb is impersonal, the first principal part will be in the third-person singular. # The second principal part is the present active infinitive. # The third principal part is the first-person singular, perfect active indicative form. Like the first principal part, if the verb is impersonal, the third principal part will be in the third-person singular. # The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular of the perfect passive participle form of the verb. The fourth principal part can show one gender of the participle or all three genders (-''us ''for masculine, -''a'' for feminine and -''um'' for neuter) in the nominative singular. The fourth principal part will be the future participle if the verb cannot be made passive. Most modern Latin dictionaries, if they show only one gender, tend to show the masculine; but many older dictionaries instead show the neuter, as it coincides with the supine. The fourth principal part is sometimes omitted for intransitive verbs, but strictly in Latin, they can be made passive if they are used impersonally, and the supine exists for such verbs. The six tenses of Latin are divided into two tense systems: the present system, which is made up of the present, imperfect and future tenses, and the perfect system, which is made up of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses. Each tense has a set of endings corresponding to the person, number, and voice of the subject. Subject (nominative) pronouns are generally omitted for the first (''I, we'') and second (''you'') persons except for emphasis. The table below displays the common inflected endings for the indicative mood in the active voice in all six tenses. For the future tense, the first listed endings are for the first and second conjugations, and the second listed endings are for the third and fourth conjugations: {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan=2|Tense !! colspan=3|Singular !! colspan=3|Plural |- ! 1st Person !! 2nd Person !! 3rd Person !! 1st Person !! 2nd Person !! 3rd Person |- ! Present | -ō/m || -s || -t || -mus || -tis || -nt |- ! Future | -bō, -am || -bis, -ēs || -bit, -et || -bimus, -ēmus || -bitis, -ētis | -bunt, -ent |- ! Imperfect | -bam || -bās || -bat || -bāmus || -bātis || -bant |- ! Perfect | -ī || -istī || -it || -imus || -istis || -ērunt |- ! Future Perfect | -erō || -eris/erīs || -erit || -erimus/-erīmus || -eritis/-erītis || -erint |- ! Pluperfect | -eram || -erās || -erat || -erāmus || -erātis || -erant |} ====Deponent verbs==== Some Latin verbs are [[deponent verb|deponent]], causing their forms to be in the passive voice but retain an active meaning: ''hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum'' (to urge). 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