Feminism

== Culture ==
{{Main|Feminism in culture}}

=== Design ===

There is a long history of feminist activity in [[design]] disciplines like [[industrial design]], [[graphic design]] and [[fashion design]]. This work has explored topics like beauty, DIY, [[feminine]] approaches to design and community-based projects.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Prochner|first1=Isabel| title=Feminist Contributions to Industrial Design and Design for Sustainability Theories and Practices |date=2019 |url=https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/handle/1866/21680}}</ref> Some iconic writing includes [[Cheryl Buckley]]'s essays on design and patriarchy<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Buckley|first1=Cheryl| title=Made in patriarchy: Toward a feminist analysis of women and design |journal=[[Design Issues]] |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages= 3–14|date=1986|doi=10.2307/1511480|jstor=1511480|s2cid=145562599 }}</ref> and Joan Rothschild's ''Design and Feminism: Re-Visioning Spaces, Places, and Everyday Things''.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rothschild|first1=Judith| title=Design and Feminism: Re-Visioning Spaces, Places, and Everyday Things |date=1999}}</ref> More recently, Isabel Prochner's research explored how feminist perspectives can support positive change in industrial design, helping to identify systemic social problems and inequities in design and guiding [[socially sustainable]] and grassroots design solutions.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Prochner|first1=Isabel|last2=Marchand|first2=Anne|title=DRS2018: Catalyst |chapter=Learning from Feminist Critiques of and Recommendations for Industrial Design |journal=Proceedings of Design as a Catalyst for Change – DRS International Conference 2018|date=2018|volume=2|doi=10.21606/drs.2018.355|isbn=9781912294275|s2cid=150913753|chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.21606/drs.2018.355}}</ref>

=== Businesses ===
{{See also|Feminist businesses}}
Feminist activists have established a range of [[feminist businesses]], including [[feminist bookstore]]s, credit unions, presses, mail-order catalogs and restaurants. These businesses flourished as part of the second and third waves of feminism in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.{{sfnp|Echols|1989|pp=269–278}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Feminist Bookstore Movement: Lesbian Antiracism and Feminist Accountability|last=Hogan|first=Kristen|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2016|location=Durham, North Carolina}}</ref>

=== Visual arts ===
{{main|Feminist art movement}}
Corresponding with general developments within feminism, and often including such self-organizing tactics as the consciousness-raising group, the movement began in the 1960s and flourished throughout the 1970s.<ref name=Gopnik/> Jeremy Strick, director of the [[Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles|Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles]], described the feminist art movement as "the most influential international movement of any during the postwar period", and [[Peggy Phelan]] says that it "brought about the most far-reaching transformations in both artmaking and art writing over the past four decades".<ref name=Gopnik>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/20/AR2007042000400.html |title=What Is Feminist Art? |author=Blake Gopnik |date=22 April 2007 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=3 December 2011}}</ref> Feminist artist [[Judy Chicago]], who created ''[[The Dinner Party]]'', a set of [[Vagina and vulva in art|vulva-themed ceramic plates]] in the 1970s, said in 2009 to ''[[ARTnews]]'', "There is still an institutional lag and an insistence on a male [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]] narrative. We are trying to change the future: to get girls and boys to realize that women's art is not an exception—it's a normal part of art history."<ref>{{cite news|author=Hoban, Phoebe|url=http://www.artnews.com/2009/12/01/the-feminist-evolution/|title=The Feminist Evolution|date=December 2009|work=ARTnews|access-date=4 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118010550/http://www.artnews.com/2009/12/01/the-feminist-evolution/|archive-date=18 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> A feminist approach to the visual arts has most recently developed through [[cyberfeminism]] and the [[posthuman]] turn, giving voice to the ways "contemporary female artists are dealing with gender, social media and the notion of embodiment".<ref name="Ferrando 2016">{{cite journal| last=Ferrando | first=Francesca |title = A feminist genealogy of posthuman aesthetics in the visual arts|year = 2016 | journal=[[Palgrave Communications]]|volume=2| pages=16011 |number=16011|doi=10.1057/palcomms.2016.11|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Feminist literature}}
{{See also|Écriture féminine|List of American feminist literature|List of feminist literature|List of feminist poets}}
[[File:Butler signing.jpg|thumb|[[Octavia Butler]], award-winning feminist science fiction author]]

The feminist movement produced [[feminist fiction]], feminist non-fiction, and [[feminist poetry]], which created new interest in [[Women's writing (literary category)|women's writing]]. It also prompted a general reevaluation of women's [[Women's history|historical]] and academic contributions in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest.<ref name=Blain>{{cite book |author=Blain, Virginia |author2=Clements, Patricia |author3=Grundy, Isobel |title=The Feminist Companion to Literature in English: Women Writers from the Middle Ages to the Present |year=1990 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=978-0-300-04854-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/feministcompanio00blai/page/ vii–x] |url=https://archive.org/details/feministcompanio00blai/page/ }}</ref> There has also been a close link between feminist literature and [[activism]], with feminist writing typically voicing key concerns or ideas of feminism in a particular era.

Much of the early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. In Western feminist literary scholarship, Studies like [[Dale Spender]]'s ''[[Mothers of the Novel: 100 Good Women Writers Before Jane Austen|Mothers of the Novel]]'' (1986) and Jane Spencer's ''The Rise of the Woman Novelist'' (1986) were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing.

Commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts. [[Virago Press]] began to publish its large list of 19th- and early-20th-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation. In the 1980s, [[Pandora Press]], responsible for publishing Spender's study, issued a companion line of 18th-century novels written by women.<ref>{{cite news |author-link=Sandra Gilbert |first=Sandra M. |last=Gilbert |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE4DD1E3AF937A35756C0A960948260 |title=Paperbacks: From Our Mothers' Libraries: women who created the novel |work=The New York Times |date=4 May 1986}}</ref> More recently, [[Broadview Press]] continues to issue 18th- and 19th-century novels, many hitherto out of print, and the [[University of Kentucky]] has a series of republications of early women's novels.

Particular works of literature have come to be known as key feminist texts. ''[[A Vindication of the Rights of Woman]]'' (1792) by [[Mary Wollstonecraft]], is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. ''[[A Room of One's Own]]'' (1929) by [[Virginia Woolf]], is noted in its argument for both a literal and figural space for women writers within a literary tradition dominated by patriarchy.

The widespread interest in women's writing is related to a general reassessment and expansion of the [[literary canon]]. Interest in [[post-colonial literature]]s, [[LGBT literature|gay and lesbian literature]], writing by people of colour, working people's writing, and the cultural productions of other historically marginalized groups has resulted in a whole scale expansion of what is considered "literature", and genres hitherto not regarded as "literary", such as children's writing, journals, letters, travel writing, and many others are now the subjects of scholarly interest.<ref name="Blain" /><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Buck |editor1-first=Claire |title=The Bloomsbury Guide to Women's Literature |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1992 |page=vix}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Salzman |first=Paul |chapter=Introduction |title=Early Modern Women's Writing |publisher=Oxford UP |year=2000 |pages=ix–x}}</ref> Most [[Literary genre|genres and subgenres]] have undergone a similar analysis, so literary studies have entered new territories such as the "[[Gothic fiction#The female Gothic and The Supernatural Explained|female gothic]]"<ref>Term coined by Ellen Moers in ''Literary Women: The Great Writers'' (New York: Doubleday, 1976). See also Juliann E. Fleenor, ed., ''The Female Gothic'' (Montreal: Eden Press, 1983) and Gary Kelly, ed., ''Varieties of Female Gothic'' 6 Vols. (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2002).</ref> or [[Women in science fiction|women's science fiction]].

According to Elyce Rae Helford, "Science fiction and fantasy serve as important vehicles for feminist thought, particularly as bridges between theory and practice."<ref>{{cite book|author=Helford, Elyce Rae |editor-first=Gary |editor-last=Westfahl |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy |chapter=Feminist Science Fiction |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-300-04854-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/feministcompanio00blai/page/289 289–291] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/feministcompanio00blai/page/289 }}</ref> Feminist science fiction is sometimes taught at the university level to explore the role of social constructs in understanding gender.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1207/s15328023top1703_17 |title=Using Science Fiction to Teach the Psychology of Sex and Gender |year=1990 |last1=Lips |first1=Hilary M. |journal=[[Teaching of Psychology]] |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=197–98|s2cid=145519594 }}</ref> Notable texts of this kind are [[Ursula K. Le Guin]]'s ''[[The Left Hand of Darkness]]'' (1969), [[Joanna Russ]]' ''[[The Female Man]]'' (1970), [[Octavia Butler]]'s ''[[Kindred (novel)|Kindred]]'' (1979) and [[Margaret Atwood]]'s ''[[Handmaid's Tale]]'' (1985).

Feminist nonfiction has played an important role in voicing concerns about women's lived experiences. For example, [[Maya Angelou]]'s ''[[I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings]]'' was extremely influential, as it represented the specific racism and sexism experienced by black women growing up in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://feminisminindia.com/2018/08/10/i-know-why-the-caged-bird-sings-review-maya-angelou/|title=I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings: Angelou's Quest to Truth and Power|last=Shah|first=Mahvish|date=2018|website=Feminism in India}}</ref>

In addition, many feminist movements have embraced [[poetry]] as a vehicle through which to communicate feminist ideas to public audiences through anthologies, poetry collections, and public readings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/144696/a-change-of-world|title=A Change of World|last=Poetry Foundation|date=29 November 2018|website=Poetry Foundation}}</ref>

Moreover, historical pieces of writing by women have been used by feminists to speak about what women's lives were like in the past while demonstrating the power that they held and the impact they had in their communities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Case|first=Sue-Ellen|date=December 1983|title=Re-Viewing Hrotsvit|journal=[[Theatre Journal]]|volume=35|issue=4|pages=533–542|doi=10.2307/3207334|jstor=3207334}}</ref> An important figure in the history of women's literature is [[Hrotsvitha]] ({{Circa|935}}–973), a [[canoness]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://scihi.org/hrotsvitha-gandersheim/|title=Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim – The Most Remarkable Women of her Time|last=Sack|first=Harald|date=6 February 2019|website=SciHi Blog|access-date=6 December 2019}}</ref> who was an early female poet in the German lands. As a historian, Hrotsvitha is one of the few writers to address women's lives from a woman's perspective during the [[Women in the Middle Ages|Middle Ages]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Frankforter|first=A. Daniel|date=February 1979|title=Hroswitha of Gandersheim and the Destiny of Women|journal=[[The Historian (journal)|The Historian]]|volume=41|issue=2|pages=295–314|doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1979.tb00548.x|issn=0018-2370}}</ref>

=== Music ===
{{main| Women's music|Women in music}}
[[File:Billie Holiday, Downbeat, New York, N.Y., ca. Feb. 1947 (William P. Gottlieb 04251).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|American jazz singer and songwriter [[Billie Holiday]] in New York City in 1947]]
[[Women's music]] (or womyn's music or wimmin's music) is the music by [[Women in music|women]], for women, and about women.<ref name="NoSmPvtPty">{{cite book |last1=Lont |first1=Cynthia |chapter=Women's Music: No Longer a Small Private Party |editor1-first=Reebee |editor1-last=Garofalo |title=Rockin' the Boat: Mass Music & Mass Movements |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/rockinboatmassmu00garof |chapter-url-access=registration |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=South End Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-89608-427-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/rockinboatmassmu00garof/page/242 242]}}</ref> The genre emerged as a musical expression of the second-wave feminist movement<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1525/jams.2001.54.3.692 |title=Girls with guitars and other strange stories |year=2001 |last1=Peraino |first1=Judith A. |journal=[[Journal of the American Musicological Society]] |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=692–709 |url=http://business.highbeam.com/437059/article-1G1-86048837/girls-guitars-and-other-strange-stories|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108161237/http://business.highbeam.com/437059/article-1G1-86048837/girls-guitars-and-other-strange-stories|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 November 2012}}</ref> as well as the [[labour (economics)|labour]], [[civil rights]], and [[peace movement]]s.<ref name="RadHarmonies">{{cite AV media|title=[[Radical Harmonies]]|last=Mosbacher|first=Dee|publisher=Woman Vision|year=2002|author-link=Dee Mosbacher|location=San Francisco, CA|oclc=53071762}}</ref> The movement was started by lesbians such as [[Cris Williamson]], [[Meg Christian]], and [[Margie Adam]], African-American women activists such as [[Bernice Johnson Reagon]] and her group [[Sweet Honey in the Rock]], and peace activist [[Holly Near]].<ref name="RadHarmonies" /> Women's music also refers to the wider industry of women's music that goes beyond the performing artists to include [[studio musicians]], [[record producer|producers]], [[sound engineer]]s, [[technician]]s, cover artists, distributors, [[promoter (entertainment)|promoters]], and festival organizers who are also women.<ref name="NoSmPvtPty" />
[[Riot grrrl]] is an [[underground music|underground]] feminist [[hardcore punk]] movement described in the [[#Cultural movements|cultural movements]] section of this article.

Feminism became a principal concern of [[Musicology|musicologists]] in the 1980s<ref name="mus">Beard, David; Gload, Kenneth. 2005. ''Musicology: The Key Concepts''. London and New York: Routledge.</ref> as part of the [[New Musicology]]. Prior to this, in the 1970s, musicologists were beginning to discover women composers and performers, and had begun to review concepts of [[Western canon|canon]], genius, genre and periodization from a feminist perspective. In other words, the question of how women musicians fit into traditional music history was now being asked.<ref name=mus/> Through the 1980s and 1990s, this trend continued as musicologists like [[Susan McClary]], [[Marcia Citron]] and Ruth Solie began to consider the cultural reasons for the marginalizing of women from the received body of work. Concepts such as music as gendered discourse; professionalism; reception of women's music; examination of the sites of music production; relative wealth and education of women; popular music studies in relation to women's identity; patriarchal ideas in music analysis; and notions of gender and difference are among the themes examined during this time.<ref name=mus/>

While the [[music industry]] has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles, women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as being the [[Conducting|leader of an orchestra]].<ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/feb/28/why-male-domination-of-classical-music-might-end |title=Why the male domination of classical music might be coming to an end|first=Jessica |last=Duchen |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=28 February 2015}}</ref> In popular music, while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the [[Audio mixer|audio console]] acting as [[Record producer#Women in producing|music producers]], the individuals who direct and manage the recording process.<ref>{{cite web |first=Rosina |last=Ncube |title=Sounding Off: Why So Few Women in Audio? |website=Sound on Sound |date=September 2013 |url=http://www.soundonsound.com/people/sounding-why-so-few-women-audio}}</ref>

=== Cinema ===
{{main|Feminist film theory}}
{{see also|Women's cinema}}
[[File:Faten_Hamama_1962.jpg|thumb|272x272px|[[Faten Hamama]] (1931–2015), Egyptian film legend, inspired women all over the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women's Activism NYC |url=https://www.womensactivism.nyc/stories/9713 |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=www.womensactivism.nyc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-05-27 |title=Remembering Films by Faten Hamama Championing Women's Rights {{!}} Egyptian Streets |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2019/05/27/remembering-4-films-by-faten-hamama-championing-womens-rights/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |language=en-US}}</ref>]]
Feminist cinema, advocating or illustrating feminist perspectives, arose largely with the development of [[feminist film theory]] in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Women who were radicalized during the 1960s by political debate and sexual liberation; but the failure of radicalism to produce substantive change for women galvanized them to form consciousness-raising groups and set about analysing, from different perspectives, dominant cinema's construction of women.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hayward|first=Susan|title=Cinema Studies – The Key Concepts|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2006|edition=3rd|pages=134–5}}</ref> Differences were particularly marked between [[Feminist film theory#History|feminists on either side of the Atlantic]]. 1972 saw the first feminist film festivals in the U.S. and U.K. as well as the first feminist film journal, ''[[Women & Film]]''. Trailblazers from this period included [[Claire Johnston (film theorist)|Claire Johnston]] and [[Laura Mulvey]], who also organized the Women's Event at the [[Edinburgh International Film Festival|Edinburgh Film Festival]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Erens|first=Patricia Brett|title=Issues in Feminist Film Criticism|publisher=[[Wiley & Sons]]|year=1991|isbn=9780253206107|pages=270}}</ref> Other theorists making a powerful impact on feminist film include [[Teresa de Lauretis]], Anneke Smelik and [[Kaja Silverman]]. Approaches in philosophy and psychoanalysis fuelled feminist film criticism, feminist independent film and feminist distribution.

It has been argued that there are two distinct approaches to independent, theoretically inspired feminist filmmaking. 'Deconstruction' concerns itself with analysing and breaking down codes of mainstream cinema, aiming to create a different relationship between the spectator and dominant cinema. The second approach, a feminist counterculture, embodies feminine writing to investigate a specifically feminine cinematic language.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Kuhn |editor1-first=A. |editor2-last=Radstone |editor2-first=S. |title=Women's Companion to International Film |url=https://archive.org/details/womenscompaniont00kuhn |url-access=registration |publisher=Virago |year=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/womenscompaniont00kuhn/page/153 153]|isbn=9781853810817 }}</ref> [[Bracha L. Ettinger]] invented a field of notions and concepts that serve the research of cinema from feminine perspective: [[The Matrixial Gaze]].<ref>Bracha L. Ettinger, Régard et éspace-de-bord matrixiels. Brussels: La Lettre Volée, 1999</ref><ref>Bracha L. Ettinger, Matrixial Subjectivity, Aesthetics, Ethics. Vol 1: 1990–2000. Selected papers edited with Introduction by Griselda Pollock. Pelgrave Macmillan 2020</ref> Ettinger's language include original concepts to discover feminine perspectives.<ref>Bracha L. Ettinger. A. And My Heart Wound-Space. Leeds: Wild Pansy Press, 2015.</ref> Many writers in the fields of film theory and contemporary art<ref>[Gutierrez-Albilla, Julian. Aesthetics, Ethics and Trauma in the Cinema of Pedro Almodovar. Edinburch University Press, 2017.</ref><ref>Gardiner, Kyoko. "Ettingerian reading of feminine-matrixial encounters in Duras/Rennais' Hiroshima Mon Amour". In: Ayelet Zohar, ed. PostGender. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009.</ref><ref>de Zegher, Catherine M., ed. Inside the Visible. Boston: The Institute of Contemporary Art/Cambridge and London: MIT Press, 1996</ref><ref>[[Pollock, Griselda]]. Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum. Taylor and Francis, 2010.</ref><ref>[[Carol Armstrong]] and [[Catherine de Zegher]]. Women Artists at the Millennium. October Books/MIT Press, 2006 2006.</ref><ref>Vandenbroeck, Paul. The Glimpse of the Concealed. Royal Museum of Fine Art, Antwerp, 2017.</ref> are using the Ettingerian matrixial sphere (matricial sphere).<ref>Butler, Judith. "Bracha's Eurydice". In: Drawing Papers, no 24: 31–35, 2001.</ref>

During the 1930s–1950s heyday of the big Hollywood studios, the status of women in the industry was abysmal.<ref>Giannetti L, ''Understanding Movies'', 7th ed. Prentice-Hall 1996;416.</ref> Since then female directors such as [[Sally Potter]], [[Catherine Breillat]], [[Claire Denis]] and [[Jane Campion]] have made art movies, and directors like [[Kathryn Bigelow]] and [[Patty Jenkins]] have had mainstream success. This progress stagnated in the 1990s, and men outnumber women five to one in behind the camera roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2018/01/the-brutal-math-of-gender-inequality-in-hollywood/550232/ |title=The Brutal Math of Gender Inequality in Hollywood |work=The Atlantic |date=11 January 2018|author=Derek Thompson}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://namesorts.com/2014/04/16/assessing-the-gender-gap-in-the-film-industry|title=Assessing the Gender Gap in the Film Industry|publisher=NamSor Blog|date=16 April 2014}}</ref>