Chinese folk religion

==Features==
{{Infobox
| bodystyle = width:16em
| above = <small>"Chief Star pointing the Dipper" {{lang-zh|魁星點斗}} ''Kuíxīng diǎn Dòu''</small>
| image = [[File:Kui Xing pointing the Big Dipper.svg|90px]]
| below = [[Kuixing]] ("Chief Star"), the god of exams, composed of the characters describing the four [[Confucianism|Confucian]] virtues (''Sìde'' {{lang-zh|四德}}), standing on the head of the ''ao'' ({{lang-zh|鰲}}) turtle (an expression for coming first in the examinations), and pointing at the [[Big Dipper]] ({{lang-zh|斗}})".{{refn|group=note|The image is a good synthesis of the basic virtues of Chinese religion and Confucian ethics, that is to say "to move and act according to the harmony of Heaven". The Big Dipper or Great Chariot in Chinese culture (as in other traditional cultures) is a symbol of the ''[[axis mundi]]'', the [[Absolute (philosophy)|source of the universe]] (God, ''Tian'') in its way of manifestation, order of creation (''li'' or ''Tao'').

The symbol, also called the Gate of Heaven ({{lang-zh|天門}} ''Tiānmén''), is widely used in esoteric and mystical literature. For example, an excerpt from [[Shangqing Taoism]]'s texts:
:"Life and death, separation and convergence, all derive from the seven stars. Thus when the Big Dipper impinges on someone, he dies, and when it moves, he lives. That is why the seven stars are Heaven's chancellor, the yamen where the gate is opened to give life."<ref>Bai Bin, "Daoism in Graves". In Pierre Marsone, John Lagerwey, eds., ''Modern Chinese Religion I: Song-Liao-Jin-Yuan (960–1368 AD)'', Brill, 2014. {{ISBN|9004271643}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=y2DiBQAAQBAJ&q=separation+convergence p. 579] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015014204/https://books.google.com/books?id=y2DiBQAAQBAJ&q=separation+convergence |date=15 October 2023 }}</ref>}}
| belowstyle = text-align:left
}}

===Theory of hierarchy and divinity===
{{Further|Chinese gods and immortals}}
Chinese religions are [[polytheism|polytheistic]], meaning that many deities are worshipped as part of what has been defined as ''yǔzhòu shénlùn'' ({{lang-zh|宇宙神論}}), translated as "[[Pantheism|cosmotheism]]", a worldview in which divinity is inherent to the world itself.<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 71"/> The gods (''[[shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]'' {{lang-zh|神}}; "growth", "beings that give birth"<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 63">Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 63</ref>) are interwoven energies or principles that generate phenomena which reveal or reproduce the way of Heaven, that is to say the order (''[[li (Confucianism)|li]]'') of the Greatnine(''[[Tian]]'').{{refn|group=note|name=names of Heaven}}

In Chinese tradition, there is not a clear distinction between the gods and their physical body or bodies (from stars to trees and animals);{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=158}} the qualitative difference between the two seems not to have ever been emphasised.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=158}} Rather, the disparity is said to be more quantitative than qualitative.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=158}} In doctrinal terms, the Chinese view of gods is related to the understanding of ''[[qi]]'', the life force,{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=158}} as the gods and their phenomenal productions are manifestations of it.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=158}} In this way, all natural bodies are believed to be able to attain supernatural attributes by acting according to the universal oneness.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=158}} Meanwhile, acting wickedly (that is to say against the Tian and its order) brings to disgrace and disaster.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=165}}

In folk religions, gods (''shen'') and immortals (''[[xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' {{lang-zh|仙}}) are not specifically distinguished from each other.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=161}} Gods can incarnate in human form and human beings can reach immortality, which means to attain higher spirituality, since all the spiritual principles (gods) are begotten of the primordial ''qi'' before any physical manifestation.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=159}}

In the ''[[Doctrine of the Mean]]'', one of the Confucian four books, the ''[[zhenren]]'' (wise) is the man who has achieved a spiritual status developing his true sincere nature.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=162}} This status, in turn, enables him to fully develop the true nature of others and of all things.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=162}} The sage is able to "assist the transforming and nourishing process of Heaven and Earth", forming a trinity (三才 ''Sāncái'', the "Three Powers") with them.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=162}} In other words, in the Chinese tradition humans are or can be the medium between Heaven and Earth, and have the role of completing what had been initiated.{{refn|group=note|name=Sancai}}

Taoist schools in particular espouse an explicit spiritual pathway which pushes the earthly beings to the edge of eternity.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=164}} Since the human body is a microcosm, enlivened by the universal order of yin and yang like the whole cosmos, the means of immortality can be found within oneself.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=164}}

Among those worshipped as immortal heroes (''xian'', exalted beings) are historical individuals distinguished for their worth or bravery, those who taught crafts to others and formed societies establishing the order of Heaven, ancestors or progenitors (''zu'' {{lang-zh|祖}}), and the creators of a spiritual tradition.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|pp=162, 165}}<ref>Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 38: ''Xian'' are described as individuals who achieve mastery of the way of Heaven and emulate it.</ref> The concept of "human divinity" is not self-contradictory, as there is no unbridgeable gap between the two realms; rather, the divine and the human are mutually contained.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=162}}

In comparison with gods of an environmental nature, who tend to remain stable throughout human experience and history, individual human deities change in time. Some endure for centuries, while others remain localised cults, or vanish after a short time.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=158}} Immortal beings are conceived as "constellations of [[qi]]", which is so vibrant in certain historical individuals that, upon the person's death, this ''qi'' nexus does not dissipate but persists, and is reinforced by living people's worship.<ref name="Barnett">Raymond Barnett. ''Relax, You're Already Home: Everyday Taoist Habits For A Richer Life''. J. P. Tarcher, 2004. {{ISBN|1585423661}}</ref> The energetic power of a god is thought to reverberate on the worshipers influencing their fortune.<ref name="Barnett"/>

====Deities and immortals====
{{Further|Yellow God incarnation theology}}
[[File:Doumu altar and statue at the Doumugong of Butterworth, Penang.jpg|thumb|Main altar and statue of [[Doumu]] inside the Temple of Doumu in [[Butterworth, Penang]], [[Malaysia]].]]
[[File:炎黄二帝巨型塑像正面视角.JPG|thumb|Statue and ceremonial complex of the Yellow and Red Gods, from whom the [[Han Chinese]] are [[Yan Huang Zisun|said to be the descendants]], in [[Zhengzhou]], [[Henan]].]]
Gods and immortals (collectively {{lang-zh|神仙}} ''shénxiān'') in the Chinese cultural tradition reflect a hierarchical, [[multiperspectivity|multiperspective]] experience of divinity.<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 63"/> In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between {{lang-zh|神}} ''shén'', {{lang-zh|帝}} ''dì'' and {{lang-zh|仙}} ''xiān''. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity", Latin ''[[genius (mythology)|genius]]'' (meaning a generative principle, "spirit") and ''[[deus]]'' or ''divus''; ''dì'', sometimes translated as "[[:wiktionary:thearch|thearch]]", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power.{{refn|group=note|The term "thearch" is from Greek ''theos'' ("deity"), with ''[[arche]]'' ("principle", "origin"), thus meaning "divine principle", "divine origin". In sinology it has been used to designate the incarnated gods who, according to Chinese tradition, sustain the world order and originated China. It is one of the alternating translations of {{lang-zh|帝}} ''dì'', together with "emperor" and "god".{{sfnb|Pregadio|2013|p=504, vol. 2 A-L|ps=: Each sector of heaven (the four points of the compass and the center) was personified by a ''di'' {{lang-zh|帝}} (a term which indicates not only an emperor but also an ancestral "thearch" and "god").}}}}{{sfnb|Medhurst|1847|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kw1gAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA260 260]}} It is etymologically and figuratively analogous to the concept of ''di'' as the base of a fruit, which falls and produces other fruits. This analogy is attested in the ''[[Shuowen jiezi]]'' explaining "deity" as "what faces the base of a melon fruit".{{sfnb|Zhao|2012|p=51}}

Many classical books have lists and hierarchies of gods and immortals, among which the "Completed Record of Deities and Immortals" ({{lang-zh|神仙通鑒}} ''Shénxiān tōngjiàn'') of the [[Ming dynasty]],{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=159}} and the "[[Biographies of Deities and Immortals]]" ({{lang-zh|神仙傳}} ''Shénxiān zhuán'') by [[Ge Hong]] (284–343).{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=161}} There's also the older ''[[Liexian zhuan]]'' ({{lang-zh|列仙傳}} "Collected Biographies of Immortals").

There are the great cosmic gods representing the first principle in its unmanifested state or its creative order—[[Jade Emperor|Yudi]] ({{lang-zh|玉帝}} "Jade Deity"){{refn|group=note|name=king-emperor-shaman-axis}} and [[Doumu]] ({{lang-zh|斗母}} "Mother of the Meaning" or "Great Chariot"), [[Pangu]] ({{lang-zh|盤古}}, the [[macranthropy|macranthropic]] metaphor of the cosmos), [[Xiwangmu]] ({{lang-zh|西王母}} "Queen Mother of the West") and [[Dongwanggong]] ({{lang-zh|東王公}} "King Duke of the East") who personificate respectively the yin and the yang,{{sfnb|Fowler|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9wi-ZDdmaqEC&q=Xiwangmu 206–207]}} as well as the dimensional Three Patrons and the [[Wufang Shangdi|Five Deities]]; then there are the sky and weather gods, the scenery gods,  the vegetal and animal gods, and gods of human virtues and crafts.<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 71"/> These are interpreted in different ways in Taoism and [[Chinese salvationist religions|folk sects]], the former conferring them long [[kataphatic]] names.<ref name="Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 71"/> Below the great deities, there is the unquantifiable number of gods of nature, as every phenomena have or are gods.

The Three Patrons ({{lang-zh|三皇}} ''Sānhuáng'')—[[Fuxi]], [[Nüwa]] and [[Shennong]]—are the "vertical" manifestation of the primordial God corresponding to the Three Realms ({{lang-zh|三界}} ''Sānjiè''), representing the yin and yang and the medium between them, that is the human being.<ref>''Journal of Chinese Religions'', 24–25, 1996. p. 6</ref>

The Five Deities ({{lang-zh|五帝}} ''Wǔdì'') or "Five Forms of the Highest Deity" ({{lang-zh|五方上帝}} ''Wǔfāng Shàngdì'')—the Yellow, Green or Blue, [[Heidi (god)|Black]], Red and White Deities{{sfnb|Medhurst|1847|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kw1gAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA260 260]}}—are the five "horizontal" manifestations of the primordial God and according with the Three Realms they have a celestial, a terrestrial and a chthonic form.{{refn|group=note|The natural order emanating from the primordial God (Tian-Shangdi) inscribing and designing worlds as ''tán'' {{lang-zh|壇}}, "altar", the Chinese concept equivalent of the Indian ''[[mandala]]''. The traditional Chinese religious cosmology shows Huangdi, embodiment of Shangdi, as the hub of the universe and the Wudi (four gods of the directions and the seasons) as his emanations. The diagram illustrated above is based on the ''[[Huainanzi]]''.{{sfnb|Sun|Kistemaker|1997|p=121}}}} They correspond to the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|five phases of creation]], the [[Four Symbols (China)|five constellations rotating around the celestial pole]], the [[Sacred Mountains of China|five sacred mountains]] and the five directions of space (the four [[cardinal direction]]s and the centre), and the five Dragon Gods ({{lang-zh|龍神}} ''Lóngshén'') which represent their mounts, that is to say the chthonic forces they preside over.{{sfnb|Little|Eichman|2000|p=250|ps=. It describes a [[Ming dynasty]] painting representing (among other figures) the Wudi: "In the foreground are the gods of the Five Directions, dressed as emperors of high antiquity, holding tablets of rank in front of them.&nbsp;... These gods are significant because they reflect the cosmic structure of the world, in which ''yin'', ''yang'' and the Five Phases (Elements) are in balance. They predate religious Taoism, and may have originated as chthonic gods of the Neolithic period. Governing all directions (east, south, west, north and center), they correspond not only to the Five Elements, but to the seasons, the Five Sacred Peaks, the Five Planets, and zodiac symbols as well."}}{{sfnb|Sun|Kistemaker|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=87lvBoFi8A0C&q=Huangdi 120–123]}}

The [[Yellow God]] ({{lang-zh|黃神}} ''Huángshén'') or "Yellow God of the [[Big Dipper|Northern Dipper]]" ({{lang-zh|黃神北斗}} ''Huángshén Běidǒu''{{refn|group=note|A {{lang-zh|斗}} ''dǒu'' in Chinese is an entire semantic field meaning the shape of a "dipper", as the [[Big Dipper]] ({{lang-zh|北斗}} ''Běidǒu''), or a "cup", signifying a "whirl", and also has martial connotations meaning "fight", "struggle", "battle".}}) is of peculiar importance, as he is a form of the universal God ([[Chinese theology|Tian or Shangdi]]){{sfnb|Lagerwey|Kalinowski|2008|p=1080}}{{sfnb|Pregadio|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R3Sp6TfzhpIC&q=Huangdi 504–505], vol. 2 A-L}} symbolising the ''[[axis mundi]]'' ([[Kunlun Mountain (mythology)|Kunlun]]), or the intersection between the Three Patrons and the Five Deities, that is the center of the cosmos.{{sfnb|Fowler|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9wi-ZDdmaqEC&q=Huangdi 200–201]}} He is therefore described in the ''[[Shizi (book)|Shizi]]'' as the "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" ({{lang-zh|黃帝四面}} ''Huángdì Sìmiàn'').{{sfnb|Sun|Kistemaker|1997|p=120}} His human incarnation, the "Yellow Emperor (or Deity) of the Mysterious Origin" ({{lang-zh|軒轅黃帝}} ''Xuānyuán Huángdì''), is said to be the creator of the ''[[Huaxia]]'' civility, of marriage and morality, language and lineage, and [[Yan Huang Zisun|patriarch of all the Chinese]] together with the Red Deity.{{sfnb|Chamberlain|2009|p=222}} Xuanyuan was the fruit of virginal birth, as his mother Fubao conceived him as she was aroused, while walking in the country, by a lightning from the Big Dipper.<ref>Yves Bonnefoy,  ''Asian Mythologies''. University of Chicago Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0226064565}}. p. 246</ref>

====Mother goddess worship====
[[File:碧霞祠.jpg|thumb|Shrine of Bixia at [[Mount Tai]], [[Shandong]].]]
The worship of [[mother goddess]]es for the cultivation of offspring is present all over China, but predominantly in northern provinces. There are nine main goddesses, and all of them tend to be considered as manifestations or attendant forces of a singular goddess identified variously as Bixia ({{lang-zh|碧霞}} "Blue Dawn"), the daughter or female consort of the Green God of Mount Tai, or [[Houtu]] ({{lang-zh|后土}} the "Queen of the Earth").<ref name="Jones, 2013. pp. 166-167">Jones, 2013. pp. 166–167</ref> Bixia herself is identified by Taoists as the more ancient goddess [[Xiwangmu]],<ref>Louis Komjathy. ''The Daoist Tradition: An Introduction''. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013. {{ISBN|1441196455}}. Chapter: ''Daoist deities and pantheons''.</ref> Goddesses are commonly entitled ''mǔ'' ({{lang-zh|母}} "mother"), ''lǎomǔ'' ({{lang-zh|老母}} "old mother"), ''shèngmǔ'' ({{lang-zh|聖母}} "holy mother"), ''niángniáng'' ({{lang-zh|娘娘}} "lady"), ''nǎinai'' ({{lang-zh|奶奶}} "granny").

Altars of goddess worship are usually arranged with Bixia at the center and two goddesses at her sides, most frequently the Lady of Eyesight and the Lady of Offspring.<ref name="Wicks">Ann Elizabeth Barrott Wicks. ''Children in Chinese Art''. University of Hawaii Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0824823591}}. pp. 149–150; some goddesses are enlisted in the note 18 at p. 191</ref> A different figure but with the same astral connections as Bixia is the Qixing Niangniang ({{lang-zh|七星娘娘}} "Goddess of the Seven Stars"). There is also the cluster of the Holy Mothers of the Three Skies ({{lang-zh|三霄聖母}} ''Sanxiao Shengmu''; or "Ladies of the Three Skies", {{lang-zh|三霄娘娘}} ''Sanxiao Niangniang''), composed of ''[[Yunxiao Niangniang|Yunxiao Guniang]]'', ''[[Qiongxiao Niangniang|Qiongxiao Guniang]]'' and ''[[Bixiao Niangniang|Bixiao Guniang]]''.{{sfnb|Overmyer|2009|p=135}} In southeastern provinces the cult of [[Chen Jinggu]] ({{lang-zh|陳靖姑}}) is identified by some scholars as an emanation of the northern cult of Bixia.<ref>J. Hackin. ''Asiatic Mythology: A Detailed Description and Explanation of the Mythologies of All the Great Nations of Asia''. Asian Educational Services, 1932. {{ISBN|8120609204}}. pp. 349.350</ref>

There are other local goddesses with motherly features, including the northern Canmu ({{lang-zh|蠶母}} "Silkworm Mother") and [[Mazu (goddess)|Mazu]] ({{lang-zh|媽祖}} "Ancestral Mother"), popular in provinces along the eastern coast and in Taiwan. The title of "Queen of Heaven" ({{lang-zh|天后}} ''Tiānhòu'') is most frequently attributed to Mazu and Doumu (the cosmic goddess).

===Worship and modalities of religious practice===
[[File:Procession with xingshen (traveling image of the god) in central Taiwan.jpg|thumb|Procession with a traveling image of a god (''xíngshén'' {{lang-zh|行神}}) in central [[Taiwan]].]]
[[File:Chinese temple's vows to the deity.jpg|thumb|Vows to a deity at a Chinese temple in [[Vietnam]].]]
[[File:Taoist ceremony at Xiao ancestral temple in Chaoyang, Shantou, Guangdong (inside) (4).jpg|thumb|A Taoist rite for ancestor worship at the [[Xiao (surname)|Xiao]] [[ancestral temple]] of [[Chaoyang District, Shantou|Chaoyang]], [[Shantou]], [[Guangdong]].]]
Adam Yuet Chau identifies five styles or modalities of "doing" Chinese religion:{{sfnb|Chau|2011}}
* Discursive-scriptural: involving the composition, preaching, and recitation of texts ([[Chinese classics|classics]], Taoist scriptures and morality books);
* Personal cultivation mode, involving a long-term cultivation and transformation of oneself with the goal of becoming a ''[[xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' {{lang-zh|仙}} (immortal), ''[[zhenren]]'' {{lang-zh|真人}} ("true person"), or ''shengren'' (wise), through the practice of different "technologies of the self" (''[[qigong]]'' {{lang-zh|氣功}}, [[Chinese alchemy|Taoist inner and outer alchemy]], charitable acts for merit, memorisation and recitation of texts);
* Liturgical: involving elaborate ritual procedures conducted by specialists of rites (Taoist rites, Confucian rites, Nuo rites, ''[[fengshui]]'' {{lang-zh|風水}});
* Immediate practical: aiming at quick efficacious (''ling'' {{lang-zh|靈}}) results through simple ritual and magical techniques ([[divination]], [[talisman]]s, divine medicine, consulting media and shamans);
* Relational: emphasising the devotional relationship between men and deities and among men themselves (organising elaborate [[sacrifice]]s, making vows, organising temple festivals, [[pilgrimage]]s, processions, and religious communities) in "social comings and goings" (''laiwang'' {{lang-zh|來往}}) and "interconnectedness" (''[[guanxi]]'' {{lang-zh|關係}}).

Generally speaking, the Chinese believe that spiritual and material well-being ensues from the harmony of humanity and gods in their participation in the same cosmic power, and also believe that by taking the right path and practice anybody is able to reach the absolute reality.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=173}} Religious practice is therefore regarded as the bridge to link the human world to the spiritual source,{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=173}} maintaining the harmony of the micro and macrocosmos, protecting the individual and the world from disruption.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183"/> In this sense, the Chinese view of human life is not deterministic, but one is a master of his own life and can choose to collaborate with the deities for a harmonious world.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183"/>
Chinese culture being a [[holism|holistic]] system, in which every aspect is a part of a whole, Chinese folk religious practice is often intermingled with political, educational and economic concerns.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=172}} A gathering or event may be encompassed with all of these aspects; in general, the commitment (belief) and the process or rite (practice) together form the internal and external dimensions of Chinese religious life.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=172}} In village communities, religious services are often organised and led by local people themselves.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=9}} Leaders are usually selected among male heads of families or lineages, or village heads.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=9}}

A simple form of individual practice is to show respect for the gods (''jing shen'' {{lang-zh|敬神}}) through ''[[jingxiang]]'' (incense offering), and the exchange of vows (''huan yuan'' {{lang-zh|還願}}).<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183"/> Sacrifice can consist of incense, oil, and candles, as well as money.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=10}} Religious devotion may also express in the form of performance troupes (''huahui''), involving many types of professionals such as stilt walkers, lion dancers, musicians, martial arts masters, ''[[yangge]]'' dancers, and story-tellers.{{sfnp|Fan|Chen|2013|p=10}}

Deities can also be respected through moral deeds in their name (''shanshi'' {{lang-zh|善事}}), and self-cultivation (''xiuxing'' {{lang-zh|修行}}).<ref>Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 191</ref> Some forms of folk religion develop clear prescriptions for believers, such as detailed lists of meritorious and sinful deeds in the form of "morality books" (''shanshu'' {{lang-zh|善書}}) and ledgers of merit and demerit.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 182">Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 182</ref> Involvement in the affairs of communal or intra-village temples are perceived by believers as ways for accumulating merit (''gongde'' {{lang-zh|功德}}).<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 182"/> Virtue is believed to accumulate in one's heart, which is seen as energetic centre of the human body (''zai jun xin zuo tian fu'' {{lang-zh|在君心作福田}}).<ref>Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 187</ref> Practices of communication with the gods comprehend different forms of Chinese shamanism, such as [[wu (shaman)|''wu'' shamanism]] and [[tongji (spirit medium)|''tongji'' mediumship]], or ''[[fuji (planchette writing)|fuji]]'' practice.

====Sacrifices====
[[File:马降龙 04 - 猪肉盘.jpg|thumb|Tray for offering sacrifices, on display in [[Kaiping]]]]
[[Classical Chinese]] has characters for different types of [[sacrifice]], probably the oldest way to communicate with divine forces, today generally encompassed by the definition ''jìsì'' ({{lang|zh|祭祀}}).{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=173}} However different in scale and quantity, all types of sacrifice would normally involve food, wine, meat and later incense.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=176}}

Sacrifices usually differ according to the kind of deity they are devoted to.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=176}} Traditionally, cosmic and nature gods are offered uncooked (or whole) food, while ancestors are offered cooked food.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=176}} Moreover, sacrifices for gods are made inside the temples that enshrine them, while sacrifices for ancestors are made outside temples.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=176}} Yearly sacrifices (''ji'') are made to Confucius, the Red and Yellow Emperors, and other cultural heroes and ancestors.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=176}}

Both in past history and at the present, all sacrifices are assigned with both religious and political purposes.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=177}} Some gods are considered carnivorous, for example the River God ({{lang-zh|河神}} ''Héshén'') and Dragon Gods, and offering to them requires animal sacrifice.<ref name="Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 189">Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 189</ref>

====Thanksgiving and redeeming====
The aims of rituals and sacrifices may be of thanksgiving and redeeming, usually involving both.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=177}} Various sacrifices are intended to express gratitude toward the gods in the hope that spiritual blessing and protection will continue.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=177}} The ''jiào'' ({{lang|zh|醮}}), an elaborate Taoist sacrifice or "rite of universal salvation", is intended to be a cosmic community renewal, that is to say a reconciliation of a community around its spiritual centre.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=178}} The ''jiao'' ritual usually starts with ''zhai'', "fasting and purification", that is meant as an atonement for evil-doing, then followed by sacrificial offerings.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=178}}

This rite, of great political importance, can be intended for the whole nation.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=178}} In fact, as early as the [[Song dynasty]], emperors asked renowned Taoists to perform such rituals on their behalf or for the entire nation.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=178}} The modern Chinese republic has given approval for Taoists to conduct such rituals since the 1990s, with the aim of protecting the country and the nation.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=178}}

====Rites of passage====
[[File:明制冠禮.jpg|thumb|''[[Guan Li]]'', Confucian [[coming of age]] ceremony ([[Hong Kong]], 2013)]]
A variety of practices are concerned with personal well-being and spiritual growth.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=180}} [[Rites of passage]] are intended to narrate the holy significance of each crucial change throughout a life course.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=180}} These changes, which are physical and social and at the same time spiritual, are marked by elaborate customs and religious rituals.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=180}}

In the holistic view about nature and the human body and life, as macro and microcosmos, the life process of a human being is equated with the rhythm of seasons and cosmic changes.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=180}} Hence, birth is likened to spring, youth to summer, maturity to autumn and old age to winter.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=180}} There are ritual passages for those who belong to a religious order of priests or monks, and there are the rituals of the stages in a life, the main four being birth, adulthood, marriage and death.{{sfnp|Yao|2010|p=181}}

Chinese folk religion sometimes incorporated Daoist elements about personal growth. A [[Tao]] realm inconceivable and incomprehensible by normal humans and even Confucius and [[Confucianism|Confucianists]] was sometimes called "the [[Tian|Heavens]]" and thought to exist by many ancient folk religion practitioners.<ref name=":132">{{Cite book |last=Minford |first=John |title=Tao Te Ching: The Essential Translation of the Ancient Chinese Book of the Tao |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-670-02498-8 |location=New York |pages=ix-x |language=en-US |author-link=John Minford}}</ref> Higher, spiritual versions of Daoists such as Laozi were thought to exist in there when they were alive and absorb "the purest Yin and Yang",<ref name=":132" /> as well as ''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' who were reborn into it after their human selves' spirits were sent there. These spiritual versions were thought to be abstract beings that can manifest in that world as mythical beings such as ''xian'' [[Chinese dragon|dragons]] who eat yin and yang energy and ride [[cloud]]s and their ''[[qi]]''.<ref name=":132" />

===Places of worship===
{{See also|Chinese temple}}
{{multiple image
| footer    = Examples of temples from two different parts of China: the Temple of the [[Jade Emperor|Jade King]] in [[Qingshui County|Qingshui]], [[Tianshui]], [[Gansu]]; and the Holy Temple of the Highest Mother in [[Fuding]], [[Ningde]], [[Fujian]].
| align     = right

| image1    = 玉皇庙清水县甘肃.jpg 
| width1    = 190
| caption1  = {{lang-zh|玉皇廟}} ''Yùhuángmiào''{{refn|group=note|Temples of the Jade Deity, a representation of the universal God in popular religion, are usually built on raised artificial platforms.}}

| image2    = Temple of the Highest Goddess in Fuding, Ningde, Fujian, China (1).jpg
| width2    = 150
| caption2  = {{lang-zh|太母聖殿}} ''Tàimǔ shèngdiàn''
}}

Chinese language has a variety of words defining the temples of the Chinese religion. Some of these terms have a precise functional use, although with time some confusion has arisen and some of them have been used interchangeably in some contexts. Collective names defining "temples" or places of worship are {{lang-zh|寺廟}} ''sìmiào'' and {{lang-zh|廟宇}} ''miàoyǔ''.{{sfnb|Li|2009}}

However, {{lang-zh|寺}} ''sì'', which originally meant a type of residence for imperial officials, with the introduction of [[Buddhism in China]] became associated with Buddhist monasteries as many officials donated their residences to the monks.{{sfnb|Li|2009}} Today ''sì'' and {{lang-zh|寺院}} ''sìyuàn'' ("monastery") are used almost exclusively for Buddhist monasteries, with sporadic exceptions, and ''sì'' is a component character of names for [[Chinese mosques]]. Another term now mostly associated with Buddhism is {{lang-zh|庵}} ''ān'', "thatched hut", originally a form of dwelling of monks later extended to mean monasteries.{{sfnb|Li|2009}}

Temples can be public, private ({{lang-zh|私廟}} ''sìmiào'') and household temples ({{lang-zh|家廟}} jiāmiào). The ''jing'' {{lang-zh|境}} is a broader "territory of a god", a geographic region or a village or city with its surroundings, marked by multiple temples or complexes of temples and delineated by the processions.{{sfnb|Goossaert|Palmer|2011|p=25}}

Pertaining to Chinese religion the most common term is {{lang-zh|廟}} ''miào'' graphically meaning a "shrine" or "sacred enclosure"; it is the general Chinese term that is translated with the general Western "[[temple]]", and is used for temples of any of the deities of polytheism. Other terms include {{lang-zh|殿}} ''diàn'' which indicates the "house" of a god, enshrining one specific god, usually a chapel within a larger temple or sacred enclosure; and {{lang-zh|壇}} ''tán'' which means "[[altar]]" and refers to any indoor or outdoor altars, majestic outdoor altars being those for the worship of Heaven and Earth and other gods of the environment.{{sfnb|Li|2009}} {{lang-zh|宮}} ''Gōng'', originally referring to imperial palaces, became associated to temples of representations of the universal God or the highest gods and consorts, such as the Queen of Heaven.{{sfnb|Li|2009}}

Another group of words is used for the [[ancestral shrine|temples of ancestral religion]]: {{lang-zh|祠}} ''cí'' (either "temple" or "shrine", meaning a sacred enclosure) or {{lang-zh|宗祠}} ''zōngcí'' ("ancestor shrine"). These terms are also used for temples dedicated to [[xian (Taoism)|immortal beings]].{{sfnb|Li|2009}} {{lang-zh|祖廟}} ''Zǔmiào'' ("original temple") instead refers to a temple which is believed to be the original temple of a deity, the most legitimate and powerful.<ref>Tan, Chee-Beng. ''Tianhou and the Chinese in Diaspora''. Chapter in the ''Routledge Handbook of the Chinese Diaspora''. Routledge, 2013. {{ISBN|1136230963}}. p. 423</ref>

{{lang-zh|堂}} ''Táng'', meaning "hall" or "church hall", originally referred to the central hall of secular buildings but it entered religious usage as a place of worship of the [[Chinese salvationist religions|folk religious sects]].{{sfnb|Li|2009}} [[Christianity in China]] has borrowed this term from the sects.

{{lang-zh|觀}} ''Guàn'' is the appropriate Chinese translation of the Western term "temple", as both refer to "[[contemplation]]" (of the divine, according to the astral patterns in the sky or the icon of a deity). Together with its extension {{lang-zh|道觀}} ''dàoguàn'' ("to contemplate or observe the Dao"), it is used exclusively for [[Taoist temple]]s and monasteries of the state [[Taoist Church]].{{sfnb|Li|2009}}

Generic terms include {{lang-zh|院}} ''yuàn'' meaning "sanctuary", from the secular usage for a courtyard, college or hospital institution; {{lang-zh|岩}} ''yán'' ("rock") and {{lang-zh|洞}} ''dòng'' ("hole", "cave") referring to temples set up in caves or on cliffs. Other generic terms are {{lang-zh|府}} ''fǔ'' ("house"), originally of imperial officials, which is a rarely used term; and {{lang-zh|亭}} ''tíng'' ("pavilion") which refers to the areas of a temple where laypeople can stay.{{sfnb|Li|2009}} There is also {{lang-zh|神祠}} ''shéncí'', "shrine of a god".

Ancestral shrines are sacred places in which lineages of related families, identified by shared [[Chinese surname|surnames]], worship their common progenitors. These temples are the "collective representation" of a group, and function as centers where religious, social and economic activities intersect.<ref>Zai Liang, Steven Messner, Cheng Chen, Youqin Huang. ''The Emergence of a New Urban China: Insiders' Perspectives''. Lexington Books, 2013. {{ISBN|0739188089}}. p. 95</ref>

Chinese temples are traditionally built according to the styles and materials (wood and bricks) of [[Chinese architecture]], and this continues to be the rule for most of the new temples. However, in the early 20th century and especially in the mainland religious revival of the early 21st century, there has been a proliferation of new styles in temple construction. These include the use of new materials (stones and concrete, stainless steel and glass) and the combination of Chinese traditional shapes with styles of the West or of transnational modernity. Examples can be found in the large ceremonial complexes of mainland China.

====Temple networks and gatherings====
{{Main|Fenxiang|Miaohui}}
[[File:GwongFuMiuWui (SingWongMiu).jpg|thumb|Gathering at a Temple of the City God of [[Guangzhou]], Guangdong.]]

{{lang-zh|分香}} ''Fēnxiāng'', meaning an "incense division", is a term that defines both hierarchical networks of temples dedicated to a god, and the ritual process by which these networks form.{{sfnp|Shahar|Weller|1996|p=24}} These temple networks are economic and social bodies, and in certain moments of history have even taken military functions.{{sfnp|Shahar|Weller|1996|p=24}} They also represent routes of [[pilgrimage]], with communities of devotees from the affiliated temples going up in the hierarchy to the senior temple (''zumiao'').{{sfnp|Shahar|Weller|1996|p=24}}

When a new temple dedicated to the same god is founded, it enters the network through the ritual of division of incense. This consists in filling the incense burner of the new temple with ashes brought from the incense burner of an existing temple.{{sfnp|Shahar|Weller|1996|p=24}} The new temple is therefore spiritually affiliated to the older temple where the ashes were taken, and directly below it in the hierarchy of temples.{{sfnp|Shahar|Weller|1996|p=24}}

{{lang-zh|廟會}} ''Miàohuì'', literally "gatherings at the temple", are "collective rituals to greet the gods" ({{lang-zh|迎神賽會}} ''yíngshén sàihuì'') that are held at the temples on various occasions such as the [[Chinese New Year]] or the birthday or holiday of the god enshrined in the temple.<ref name="Davis">{{cite book |last = Davis |first = Edward L. |year = 2009 |title = Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture |publisher = Taylor & Francis |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2rLBvrlKI7QC |isbn = 978-0415777162 |access-date = 31 July 2016 |archive-date = 15 February 2024 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240215111713/https://books.google.com/books?id=2rLBvrlKI7QC |url-status = live }} pp. 815-816</ref> In North China they are also called {{lang-zh|賽會}} ''sàihuì'' ("communal ritual gatherings") or {{lang-zh|香會}} ''xiānghuì'' ("incense gatherings"), while a {{lang-zh|賽社}} ''sàishè'' ("communal ritual body") is the association which organises such events and by extension it has become another name of the event itself.{{sfnb|Overmyer|2009|p=94}}

Activities include rituals, theatrical performances, processions of the gods' images throughout villages and cities, and offerings to the temples.<ref name="Davis"/> In north China temple gatherings are generally week-long and large events attracting tens of thousands of people, while in south China they tend to be smaller and village-based events.<ref name="Davis"/>