Tax

==Types==
The [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) publishes an analysis of the tax systems of member countries. As part of such analysis, OECD has developed a definition and system of classification of internal taxes,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.oecd.org/daf/mai/pdf/eg2/eg2963e.pdf |title= Definition of Taxes (Note by the Chairman), 1996 |access-date= 22 January 2013}}</ref> generally followed below. In addition, many countries impose taxes ([[tariff]]s) on the import of goods.

===Income Taxation===

====Income tax====
{{Main|Income tax}}
Many jurisdictions tax the income of individuals and of [[business entities]], including [[corporation]]s. Generally, the authorities impose a tax on net profits from a [[business]], on net gains, and on other income. Computation of income subject to tax may be determined under accounting principles used in the jurisdiction, which [[tax law|tax-law]] principles in the jurisdiction may modify or replace. The [[Tax incidence|incidence of taxation]] varies by system, and some systems may be viewed as [[Progressive tax|progressive]] or [[Regressive tax|regressive]]. Rates of tax may vary or be constant (flat) by income level. Many systems allow individuals certain personal allowances and other non-business reductions to taxable income, although business deductions tend to be favored over personal deductions.

[[Tax collection agencies|Tax-collection agencies]] often collect [[personal income tax]] on a [[PAYE|pay-as-you-earn]] basis, with corrections made after the end of the [[tax year]]. These corrections take one of two forms:

* payments to the government, from taxpayers who have not paid enough during the tax year
* [[tax refund]]s from the government to those who have overpaid

Income-tax systems often make deductions available that reduce the total tax liability by reducing total taxable income. They may allow losses from one type of income to count against another – for example, a loss on the stock market may be deducted against taxes paid on wages. Other tax systems may isolate the loss, such that business losses can only be deducted against business income tax by carrying forward the loss to later tax years.

====Negative income tax====
{{Main|Negative income tax}}
In economics, a negative income tax (abbreviated NIT) is a [[progressive income tax]] system where people earning below a certain amount receive supplemental payment from the government instead of paying taxes to the government.

====Capital gains====
{{Main|Capital gains tax}}
Most jurisdictions imposing an income tax treat [[capital gain]]s as part of income subject to tax. Capital gain is generally a gain on sale of capital assets—that is, those assets not held for sale in the ordinary course of business. Capital assets include personal assets in many jurisdictions. Some jurisdictions provide preferential rates of tax or only partial taxation for capital gains. Some jurisdictions impose different rates or levels of capital-gains taxation based on the length of time the asset was held. Because tax rates are often much lower for capital gains than for ordinary income, there is widespread controversy and dispute about the proper definition of capital.

====Corporate====
{{Main|Corporate tax}}
Corporate tax refers to income tax, capital tax, net-worth tax, or other taxes imposed on corporations. Rates of tax and the taxable base for corporations may differ from those for individuals or for other taxable persons.

===Social-security contributions===
[[File:GDP per capita PPP vs social contributions 2016.svg|thumb|[[Public finance|General government]] revenue, in % of [[GDP]], from social contributions. For this data, 20% of the [[variance]] of GDP per capita – adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP) – is explained by revenue from social security and the like.]]

Many countries provide publicly funded retirement or healthcare systems.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/progdesc/index.html |title= Social Security Programs Throughout the World on the U.S. Social Security website for links to individual country program descriptions |publisher= Ssa.gov |access-date= 22 January 2013}}</ref> In connection with these systems, the country typically requires employers and/or employees to make compulsory payments.<ref>By contrast, some countries, such as [http://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/progdesc/ssptw/2010-2011/asia/newzealand.html New Zealand], finance the programs through other taxes.</ref> These payments are often computed by reference to wages or earnings from self-employment. Tax rates are generally fixed, but a different rate may be imposed on employers than on employees.<ref>See for example [http://labour.nic.in/ss/overview.html India Social Security overview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623221835/http://labour.nic.in/ss/overview.html |date=23 June 2011 }}</ref> Some systems provide an upper limit on earnings subject to the tax. A few systems provide that the tax is payable only on wages above a particular amount. Such upper or lower limits may apply for retirement but not for health-care components of the tax. Some have argued that such taxes on wages are a form of "forced savings" and not really a tax, while others point to redistribution through such systems between generations (from newer cohorts to older cohorts) and across income levels (from higher income levels to lower income-levels) which suggests that such programs are really taxed and spending programs.

===Payroll or workforce===
{{Main|Payroll tax}}Unemployment and similar taxes are often imposed on employers based on the total payroll. These taxes may be imposed in both the country and sub-country levels.<ref>See for example the United States [[Federal Unemployment Tax Act]].</ref>

===Wealth===
A '''wealth tax''' is levied on the total value of personal assets, including: bank deposits, real estate, assets in insurance and pension plans, ownership of [[unincorporated entity|unincorporated businesses]], [[Security (finance)|financial securities]], and personal trusts.<ref name="EWBR">{{Cite web|first=Edward N. |last=Wolff |title=Time for a Wealth Tax? |url=http://bostonreview.net/BR21.1/wolff.html |magazine=Boston Review (Feb–Mar 1996) |year=1996 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512230734/http://bostonreview.net/BR21.1/wolff.html |archive-date=12 May 2008 |url-status=dead}} (recommending a net wealth tax for the US of 0.05% for the first $100,000 in assets to 0.3% for assets over $1,000,000)</ref> Liabilities (primarily mortgages and other loans) are typically deducted, hence it is sometimes called a '''net wealth tax'''.

===Property===
Recurrent property taxes may be imposed on immovable property (real property) and on some classes of movable property. In addition, recurrent taxes may be imposed on the net wealth of individuals or corporations.<ref>Taxes on the net wealth of corporations are often referred to as [[corporate tax]].</ref> Many jurisdictions impose [[estate tax]], [[gift tax]] or other [[inheritance tax]]es on property at death or at the time of gift transfer. Some jurisdictions impose [[Financial transaction tax|taxes on financial or capital transactions]].

====Property taxes====
{{Main|Property tax|Land value tax}}
A property tax (or millage tax) is an [[ad valorem tax|'' ad valorem'' tax]] levy on the value of a property that the owner of the property is required to pay to a government in which the property is situated. Multiple jurisdictions may tax the same property. There are three general varieties of property: land, improvements to land (immovable human-made things, e.g. buildings), and personal property (movable things). [[Real property|Real estate]] or realty is the combination of land and improvements to the land.

Property taxes are usually charged on a recurrent basis (e.g., yearly). A common type of property tax is an annual charge on the ownership of [[real estate]], where the tax base is the estimated value of the property. For a period of over 150 years from 1695, the government of England levied a [[window tax]], with the result that one can still see [[listed buildings]] with windows bricked up in order to save their owner's money. A similar tax on hearths existed in France and elsewhere, with similar results. The two most common types of event-driven property taxes are [[stamp duty]], charged upon change of ownership, and [[inheritance tax]], which many countries impose on the estates of the deceased.

In contrast with a tax on real estate (land and buildings), a [[land value tax|land-value tax]] (or LVT) is levied only on the unimproved value of the land ("land" in this instance may mean either the economic term, i.e., all-natural resources, or the natural resources associated with specific areas of the Earth's surface: "lots" or "land parcels"). Proponents of the land-value tax argue that it is economically justified, as it will not deter production, distort market mechanisms or otherwise create [[deadweight loss]]es the way other taxes do.<ref>{{Cite book |last1= McCluskey |first1= William J. |last2= Franzsen |first2= Riël C. D. |title= Land Value Taxation: An Applied Analysis |page= 4 |publisher= Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year= 2005 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jkogP2U4k0AC&pg=PA73|isbn= 978-0-7546-1490-6}}</ref>

When real estate is held by a higher government unit or some other entity not subject to taxation by the local government, the taxing authority may receive a [[PILOT (finance)|payment in lieu of taxes]] to compensate it for some or all of the foregone tax revenues.

In many jurisdictions (including many American states), there is a general tax levied periodically on residents who own [[personal property]] (personalty) within the jurisdiction. Vehicle and boat registration fees are subsets of this kind of tax. The tax is often designed with blanket coverage and large exceptions for things like food and clothing. Household goods are often exempt when kept or used within the household.<ref name="taxpolicycenter1">{{cite web |url=http://www.taxpolicycenter.org/taxtopics/budget.cfm |title=TPC Tax Topics &#124; Federal Budget |publisher=Taxpolicycenter.org |access-date=27 March 2009}}</ref> Any otherwise non-exempt object can lose its exemption if regularly kept outside the household.<ref name="taxpolicycenter1" /> Thus, tax collectors often monitor newspaper articles for stories about wealthy people who have lent art to museums for public display, because the artworks have then become subject to personal property tax.<ref name="taxpolicycenter1" /> If an artwork had to be sent to another state for some touch-ups, it may have become subject to personal property tax in ''that'' state as well.<ref name="taxpolicycenter1" />

====Inheritance====
{{Main|Inheritance tax}}
Inheritance tax, estate tax, and death tax or duty are the names given to various taxes that arise on the death of an individual. In United States [[tax law]], there is a distinction between an estate tax and an inheritance tax: the former taxes the personal representatives of the deceased, while the latter taxes the beneficiaries of the estate. However, this distinction does not apply in other jurisdictions; for example, if using this terminology UK inheritance tax would be an estate tax.

====Expatriation====
{{Main|Expatriation tax}}
An expatriation tax is a tax on individuals who renounce their [[citizenship]] or residence. The tax is often imposed based on a deemed disposition of all the individual's property. One example is the [[United States]] under the ''[[American Jobs Creation Act]]'', where any individual who has a net worth of $2 million or an average income-tax liability of $127,000 who renounces his or her citizenship and leaves the country is automatically assumed to have done so for tax avoidance reasons and is subject to a higher tax rate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/877- |title=26 USC 877 |publisher=Law.cornell.edu |access-date=22 January 2013}}</ref>

====Transfer====
{{Main|Transfer tax}}
Historically, in many countries, a contract needs to have a stamp affixed to make it valid. The charge for the stamp is either a fixed amount or a percentage of the value of the transaction. In most countries, the stamp has been abolished but [[stamp duty]] remains. Stamp duty is levied in the UK on the purchase of shares and securities, the issue of bearer instruments, and certain partnership transactions. Its modern derivatives, [[stamp duty reserve tax]] and [[stamp duty land tax]], are respectively charged on transactions involving securities and land. Stamp duty has the effect of discouraging speculative purchases of assets by decreasing liquidity. In the [[United States]], transfer tax is often charged by the state or local government and (in the case of real property transfers) can be tied to the recording of the deed or other transfer documents.

====Wealth (net worth)====
{{Main|Wealth tax}}
Some countries' governments will require a declaration of the taxpayers' [[balance sheet]] (assets and liabilities), and from that exact a tax on [[net worth]] (assets minus liabilities), as a percentage of the net worth, or a percentage of the net worth exceeding a certain level. The tax may be levied on "[[natural person|natural]]" or "[[juristic person|legal persons.]]"

===Goods and services===
====Value added====
{{Main|Value added tax}}
A value-added tax (VAT), also known as Goods and Services Tax (GST), Single Business Tax, or Turnover Tax in some countries, applies the equivalent of a sales tax to every operation that creates value. To give an example, sheet steel is imported by a machine manufacturer. That manufacturer will pay the VAT on the purchase price, remitting that amount to the government. The manufacturer will then transform the steel into a machine, selling the machine for a higher price to a wholesale distributor. The manufacturer will collect the VAT on the higher price but will remit to the government only the excess related to the "value-added" (the price over the cost of the sheet steel). The wholesale distributor will then continue the process, charging the retail distributor the VAT on the entire price to the retailer, but remitting only the amount related to the distribution mark-up to the government. The last VAT amount is paid by the eventual retail customer who cannot recover any of the previously paid VAT. For a VAT and sales tax of identical rates, the total tax paid is the same, but it is paid at differing points in the process.

VAT is usually administrated by requiring the company to complete a VAT return, giving details of VAT it has been charged (referred to as input tax) and VAT it has charged to others (referred to as output tax). The difference between output tax and input tax is payable to the Local Tax Authority.

Many tax authorities have introduced automated VAT which has increased [[accountability]] and [[auditability]], by utilizing computer systems, thereby also enabling anti-cybercrime offices as well. {{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

====Sales====
{{Main|Sales tax}}
Sales taxes are levied when a commodity is sold to its final consumer. Retail organizations contend that such taxes discourage retail sales. The question of whether they are generally progressive or regressive is a subject of much current debate. People with higher incomes spend a lower proportion of them, so a flat-rate sales tax will tend to be regressive. It is therefore common to exempt food, utilities, and other necessities from sales taxes, since poor people spend a higher proportion of their incomes on these commodities, so such exemptions make the tax more progressive. This is the classic "You pay for what you spend" tax, as only those who spend money on non-exempt (i.e. luxury) items pay the tax.

A small number of U.S. states rely entirely on sales taxes for state revenue, as those states do not levy a state income tax. Such states tend to have a moderate to a large amount of tourism or inter-state travel that occurs within their borders, allowing the state to benefit from taxes from people the state would otherwise not tax. In this way, the state is able to reduce the tax burden on its citizens. The U.S. states that do not levy a state income tax are Alaska, Tennessee, Florida, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas,<ref>Although Texas has no individual income tax, the state does impose a [[franchise tax]]—soon to be replaced by a margin tax—on business activity that, while not denominated as an income tax, is in substance a kind of income tax.</ref> Washington state, and Wyoming. Additionally, New Hampshire and Tennessee levy state income taxes only on [[Dividend tax|dividends]] and interest income. Of the above states, only Alaska and New Hampshire do not levy a state sales tax. Additional information can be obtained at the [http://www.taxadmin.org/ Federation of Tax Administrators] website.

In the United States, there is a growing movement<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13110436 |title=Economist.com |work=Economist|date=12 February 2009 |access-date=27 March 2009}}</ref> for the replacement of all federal payroll and income taxes (both corporate and personal) with a national retail sales tax and monthly tax rebate to households of citizens and legal resident aliens. The tax proposal is named [[FairTax]]. In Canada, the federal sales tax is called the Goods and Services Tax (GST) and now stands at 5%. The provinces of British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Prince Edward Island also have a provincial sales tax [PST]. The provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland & Labrador, and Ontario have harmonized their provincial sales taxes with the GST—Harmonized Sales Tax [HST], and thus is a full VAT. The province of Quebec collects the Quebec Sales Tax [QST] which is based on the GST with certain differences. Most businesses can claim back the GST, HST, and QST they pay, and so effectively it is the final consumer who pays the tax.

====Excises====
{{Main|Excise}}
An excise duty is an [[indirect tax]] imposed upon goods during the process of their manufacture, production or distribution, and is usually proportionate to their quantity or value. Excise duties were first introduced into England in the year 1643, as part of a scheme of revenue and taxation devised by parliamentarian [[John Pym]] and approved by the [[Long Parliament]]. These duties consisted of charges on beer, ale, cider, cherry wine, and tobacco, to which list were afterward added paper, soap, candles, malt, hops, and sweets. The basic principle of excise duties was that they were taxes on the production, manufacture, or distribution of articles which could not be taxed through the [[customs house]], and revenue derived from that source is called excise revenue proper. The fundamental conception of the term is that of a tax on articles produced or manufactured in a country. In the taxation of such articles of luxury as spirits, beer, tobacco, and cigars, it has been the practice to place a certain duty on the importation of these articles (a [[tariff|customs duty]]).<ref name=Quick>{{cite book |last1=Quick |first1=John |last2=Garran |first2=Robert |title=The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth |date=1 January 1901 |publisher=Angus & Robertson |location=Australia |page=837 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VR-CAAAAIAAJ }}</ref>

Excises (or exemptions from them) are also used to modify consumption patterns of a certain area ([[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]]). For example, a high excise is used to discourage [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] consumption, relative to other goods. This may be combined with [[Hypothecated tax|hypothecation]] if the proceeds are then used to pay for the costs of treating illness caused by [[alcohol use disorder]]. Similar taxes may exist on [[tobacco]], [[pornography]], [[Cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] etc., and they may be collectively referred to as "[[sin tax]]es". A [[carbon tax]] is a tax on the consumption of carbon-based non-renewable fuels, such as petrol, diesel-fuel, jet fuels, and natural gas. The object is to reduce the release of carbon into the atmosphere. In the United Kingdom, [[vehicle excise duty]] is an annual tax on vehicle ownership.

===Tariff===
{{Main|Tariff}}
An import or export tariff (also called customs duty or impost) is a charge for the movement of goods through a political border. Tariffs discourage [[trade]], and they may be used by governments to protect domestic industries. A proportion of tariff revenues is often hypothecated to pay the government to maintain a navy or border police. The classic ways of cheating a tariff are [[smuggling]] or declaring a false value of goods. Tax, tariff and trade rules in modern times are usually set together because of their common impact on [[industrial policy]], [[investment policy]], and [[agricultural policy]]. A [[trade bloc]] is a group of allied countries agreeing to minimize or eliminate tariffs against trade with each other, and possibly to impose protective tariffs on imports from outside the bloc. A [[customs union]] has a [[common external tariff]], and the participating countries share the revenues from tariffs on goods entering the customs union.

In some societies, tariffs also could be imposed by local authorities on the movement of goods between regions (or via specific internal gateways). A notable example is the ''[[likin (taxation)|likin]]'', which became an important revenue source for local governments in the late [[Qing Empire|Qing China]].

===Other===

====License fees====
Occupational taxes or license fees may be imposed on businesses or individuals engaged in certain businesses. Many jurisdictions impose a tax on vehicles.

====Poll====
{{Main|Poll tax}}
A poll tax, also called a ''per capita tax'', or ''capitation tax'', is a tax that levies a set amount per individual. It is an example of the concept of [[fixed tax]]. One of the earliest taxes mentioned in the [[Bible]] of a half-shekel per annum from each adult Jew (Ex. 30:11–16) was a form of the poll tax. Poll taxes are administratively cheap because they are easy to compute and collect and difficult to cheat. Economists have considered poll taxes economically efficient because people are presumed to be in fixed supply and poll taxes, therefore, do not lead to economic distortions. However, poll taxes are very unpopular because poorer people pay a higher proportion of their income than richer people. In addition, the supply of people is in fact not fixed over time: on average, couples will choose to have fewer children if a poll tax is imposed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.taxpolicycenter.org/TaxFacts/listdocs.cfm?topic2id=60 |title=Tax Facts &#124; Tax Facts Listing |publisher=Taxpolicycenter.org |access-date=27 March 2009}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2011}} The introduction of a poll tax in medieval England was the primary cause of the 1381 [[Peasants' Revolt]]. Scotland was the first to be used to test the new poll tax in 1989 with England and Wales in 1990. The change from progressive local taxation based on property values to a single-rate form of taxation regardless of ability to pay (the [[Poll tax (Great Britain)|Community Charge]], but more popularly referred to as the Poll Tax), led to widespread refusal to pay and to incidents of civil unrest, known colloquially as the '[[Poll Tax Riots]]'.

====Other====
Some types of taxes have been proposed but not actually adopted in any major jurisdiction. These include:
* [[Bank tax]]
* [[Financial transaction tax]]es including currency transaction taxes

===Descriptive labels===

====Ad valorem and per unit====
{{Main|Ad valorem tax|Per unit tax}}
An ''ad valorem'' tax is one where the tax base is the value of a good, service, or property. Sales taxes, tariffs, property taxes, inheritance taxes, and value-added taxes are different types of ad valorem tax. An ad valorem tax is typically imposed at the time of a transaction (sales tax or value-added tax (VAT)) but it may be imposed on an annual basis (property tax) or in connection with another significant event (inheritance tax or tariffs).

In contrast to ad valorem taxation is a ''per unit'' tax, where the tax base is the quantity of something, regardless of its price. An [[excise tax]] is an example.

====Consumption====
{{Main|Consumption tax}}
Consumption tax refers to any tax on non-investment spending and can be implemented by means of a sales tax, consumer value-added tax, or by modifying an income tax to allow for unlimited deductions for investment or savings.

====Environmental====
{{See also|Ecotax|Gas Guzzler Tax|Polluter pays principle|Pigovian tax}}
This includes [[natural resources consumption tax]], greenhouse gas tax ([[Carbon tax]]), "sulfuric tax", and others. The stated purpose is to reduce the environmental impact by [[Effect of taxes and subsidies on price|repricing]]. Economists describe environmental impacts as negative [[externalities]]. As early as 1920, [[Pigovian tax|Arthur Pigou]] suggested a tax to deal with externalities (see also the section on [[#Increased economic welfare|Increased economic welfare]] below). The proper implementation of environmental taxes has been the subject of a long-lasting debate.

====Proportional, progressive, regressive, and lump-sum====
An important feature of tax systems is the percentage of the tax burden as it relates to income or consumption. The terms progressive, regressive, and proportional are used to describe the way the rate progresses from low to high, from high to low, or proportionally. The terms describe a distribution effect, which can be applied to any type of tax system (income or consumption) that meets the definition.
* A [[progressive tax]] is a tax imposed so that the [[effective tax rate]] increases as the amount to which the rate is applied increases.
* The opposite of a progressive tax is a [[regressive tax]], where the effective tax rate decreases as the amount to which the rate is applied increases. This effect is commonly produced where means testing is used to withdraw tax allowances or state benefits.
* In between is a [[proportional tax]], where the effective tax rate is fixed, while the amount to which the rate is applied increases.
* A lump-sum tax is a tax that is a fixed amount, no matter the change in circumstance of the taxed entity. This in actuality is a regressive tax as those with lower income must use a higher percentage of their income than those with higher income and therefore the effect of the tax reduces as a function of income.

The terms can also be used to apply meaning to the taxation of select consumption, such as a [[Luxury tax|tax on luxury goods]] and the exemption of basic necessities may be described as having progressive effects as it increases a tax burden on high end consumption and decreases a tax burden on low end consumption.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irs.gov/app/understandingTaxes/jsp/whys/lp/IWT5L1lp.jsp |title=Internal Revenue Service |publisher=www.irs.gov |access-date=27 March 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816190910/https://www.irs.gov/app/understandingTaxes/jsp/whys/lp/IWT5L1lp.jsp |archive-date=16 August 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9370763/luxury-tax |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707094214/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9370763/luxury-tax |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 July 2012 |title=Luxury tax&nbsp;— Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Concise.britannica.com |access-date=27 March 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |jstor=1813222 |title=Clothing Exemptions and Sales Tax Regressivity |first=Jeffrey M. |last=Schaefer |date=1 January 1969 |journal=The American Economic Review |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=596–99}}</ref>

====Direct and indirect====
{{Main|Direct tax|Indirect tax}}
Taxes are sometimes referred to as "direct taxes" or "indirect taxes". The meaning of these terms can vary in different contexts, which can sometimes lead to confusion. An economic definition, by Atkinson, states that "...direct taxes may be adjusted to the individual characteristics of the taxpayer, whereas indirect taxes are levied on transactions irrespective of the circumstances of buyer or seller."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Atkinson |first1=A. B. |year=1977 |title=Optimal Taxation and the Direct Versus Indirect Tax Controversy |journal=Can. J. Econ. |volume=590 |page=592}}</ref> According to this definition, for example, income tax is "direct", and sales tax is "indirect". 
 
In law, the terms may have different meanings. In U.S. constitutional law, for instance, direct taxes refer to [[Tax per head|poll taxes]] and [[property tax]]es, which are based on simple existence or ownership. Indirect taxes are imposed on events, rights, privileges, and activities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.investorguide.com/igu-article-1138-tax-basics-what-is-difference-between-direct-and-indirect-tax.html |title=What is Difference Between Direct and Indirect Tax? |publisher=Investor Guide |access-date=28 October 2011 |archive-date=22 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622031929/http://www.investorguide.com/article/11164/the-difference-between-direct-tax-and-indirect-tax-igu/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Thus, a tax on the sale of the property would be considered an indirect tax, whereas the tax on simply owning the property itself would be a direct tax.

===Fees and effective===
Governments may charge user [[fee]]s, tolls, or other types of assessments in exchange of particular goods, services, or use of property. These are generally not considered taxes, as long as they are levied as payment for a direct benefit to the individual paying.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncsu.edu/project/calscommblogs/economic/archives/2007/05/the_difference.html |title=Taxes versus fees |publisher=Ncsu.edu |date=2 May 2007 |access-date=22 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008032841/http://www.ncsu.edu/project/calscommblogs/economic/archives/2007/05/the_difference.html |archive-date=8 October 2012 }}</ref> Such fees include:
* Tolls: a fee charged to travel via a [[Toll road|road]], [[Toll bridge|bridge]], [[Toll tunnel|tunnel]], [[canal]], [[waterway]] or other transportation facilities. Historically tolls have been used to pay for public bridge, road, and tunnel projects. They have also been used in privately constructed transport links. The toll is likely to be a fixed charge, possibly graduated for vehicle type, or for distance on long routes.
* User fees, such as those charged for use of parks or other government-owned facilities.
* Ruling fees charged by governmental agencies to make determinations in particular situations.

Some scholars refer to certain economic effects as taxes, though they are not levies imposed by governments. These include:
* [[Inflation tax]]: the economic disadvantage suffered by holders of [[cash and cash equivalents]] in one denomination of [[currency]] due to the effects of [[expansionary monetary policy]]<ref>Some economists{{who|date=September 2010}} hold that the inflation tax affects the lower and middle classes more than the rich, as they hold a larger fraction of their income in cash, they are much less likely to receive the newly created monies before the market has adjusted with inflated prices, and more often have fixed incomes, [[wages]] or [[pensions]]. Some argue that inflation is a [[regressive tax|regressive]] [[consumption tax]]. Also see Andrés Erosa and Gustavo Ventura, "[http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/economics/econref/workingpapers/researchreports/wp2000/wp2000_1.pdf On inflation as a regressive consumption tax] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910064531/http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/economics/econref/workingpapers/researchreports/wp2000/wp2000_1.pdf |date=10 September 2008 }}". Some{{who|date=June 2011}} claim there are systemic effects of an expansionary monetary policy, which are also definitively taxing, imposing a financial charge on some as a result of the policy. Because the effects of monetary expansion or [[counterfeiting]] are never uniform over an entire economy, the policy influences capital transfers in the market, creating [[economic bubbles]] where the new monies are first introduced. Economic bubbles increase market instability and therefore increase investment risk, creating the conditions common to a [[recession]]. This particular tax can be understood to be levied on future generations that would have benefited from economic growth, and it has a 100% transfer cost (so long as people are not acting against their interests, increased uncertainty benefits, no-one). One example of a strong supporter of this tax was the former [[Federal Reserve]] chair [[Beardsley Ruml]].</ref>
* [[Financial repression]]: Government policies such as interest-rate caps on government debt, financial regulations such as reserve requirements and capital controls, and barriers to entry in markets where the government owns or controls businesses.<ref>
See for example Reinhart, Carmen M. and Rogoff, Kenneth S., ''This Time is Different''. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2008 (p. 143), [https://www.imf.org/external/np/seminars/eng/2011/res2/pdf/crbs.pdf The Liquidation of Government Debt, Reinhart, Carmen M. & Sbrancia, M. Belen, p. 19], {{cite journal |last1=Giovannini |first1=Alberto |last2=de Melo |first2=Martha |year=1993 |title=Government Revenue from Financial Repression |journal=The American Economic Review |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=953–963}}
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