Renaissance Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Origins== {{main|Italian Renaissance}} [[File:Sunset over florence 1.jpg|thumb|View of [[Florence]], birthplace of the Renaissance]] Many argue that the ideas characterizing the Renaissance had their origin in [[Florence]] at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries, in particular with the writings of [[Dante Alighieri]] (1265β1321) and [[Petrarch]] (1304β1374), as well as the paintings of [[Giotto di Bondone]] (1267β1337). Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses [[Lorenzo Ghiberti]] and [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] competed for the contract to build the bronze doors for the [[Florence Baptistery|Baptistery]] of the [[Florence Cathedral]] (Ghiberti then won).<ref>Walker, Paul Robert, ''The Feud that sparked the Renaissance: How Brunelleschi and Ghiberti Changed the Art World'' (New York, Perennial-Harper Collins, 2003)</ref> Others see more general competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, [[Donatello]], and [[Masaccio]] for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, and why it began when it did. Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. Peter Rietbergen posits that various influential Proto-Renaissance movements started from roughly 1300 onwards across many regions of [[Europe]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Rietbergen |first=P. J. A. N. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52849131 |title=A Short History of the Netherlands: From Prehistory to the Present Day |publisher=Bekking |year=2000 |isbn=90-6109-440-2 |edition=4th |location=Amersfoort |pages=59 |oclc=52849131}}</ref> ===Latin and Greek phases of Renaissance humanism=== {{see also|Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Transmission of the Greek Classics}} [[File:Salutati.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Coluccio Salutati]]]] In stark contrast to the [[High Middle Ages]], when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics,{{efn|For information on this earlier, very different approach to a different set of ancient texts (scientific texts rather than cultural texts) see [[Latin translations of the 12th century]], and [[Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe]].}} Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars such as [[Petrarch]], [[Coluccio Salutati]] (1331β1406), [[NiccolΓ² de' Niccoli]] (1364β1437), and [[Poggio Bracciolini]] (1380β1459) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors as [[Cicero]], [[Lucretius]], [[Livy]], and [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]].<ref>{{harvnb|Reynolds|Wilson|1974|pp=113β123}}</ref> By the early 15th century, the bulk of the surviving such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.<ref>{{harvnb|Reynolds|Wilson|1974|pp=123, 130β137}}</ref> Unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, mathematics, and philosophy had been studied since the [[High Middle Ages]] in Western Europe and in the [[Islamic Golden Age]] (normally in translation), but Greek literary, oratorical and historical works (such as [[Homer]], the Greek dramatists, [[Demosthenes]] and [[Thucydides]]) were not studied in either the Latin or medieval [[Islamic world]]s; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine scholars. Some argue that the [[Timurid Renaissance]] in [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]], whose magnificence toned with Florence as the center of a cultural rebirth,<ref>''Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective'', p. 129 {{ISBN?}}</ref><ref>''The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia'', p. 465 {{ISBN?}}</ref> were linked to the [[Ottoman Empire]], whose conquests led to the migration of [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Greek scholars]] to Italian cities.<ref>''The Connoisseur'', Volume 219, p. 128.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=December 2020}}<ref>''Europe in the second millennium: a hegemony achieved?'', p. 58</ref>{{full citation needed|date=December 2020}}<ref name=Britannica1/><ref>Harris, Michael H. ''History of Libraries in the Western World'', Scarecrow Press, 1999, p. 145, {{ISBN|0810837242}}.</ref> One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity. [[Muslims|Muslim]] logicians, most notably [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]], had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Levant]]. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into [[Al-Andalus|Iberia]] and [[Emirate of Sicily|Sicily]], which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from [[Classical Arabic]] to [[Medieval Latin]] were established in Iberia, most notably the [[Toledo School of Translators]]. This work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.<ref name="MP">[https://books.google.com/books?id=kKGgoNo4un0C&pg=PA261 ''Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society''], Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, Margaret C. Jacob, James R. Jacob, 2008, pp. 261β262.</ref> The movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary, historical, oratorical, and theological texts back into the Western European curriculum is usually dated to the 1396 invitation from Coluccio Salutati to the Byzantine diplomat and scholar [[Manuel Chrysoloras]] (c. 1355β1415) to teach Greek in Florence.<ref>{{harvnb|Reynolds|Wilson|1974|pp=119, 131}}</ref> This legacy was continued by a number of expatriate Greek scholars, from [[Basilios Bessarion]] to [[Leo Allatius]]. ===Social and political structures in Italy=== [[File:Italy 1494 AD.png|thumb|A political map of the [[Italian Peninsula]] circa 1494]] The unique political structures of [[Italy]] during the [[Late Middle Ages]] have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Italy did not exist as a [[Nation state|political entity]] in the early modern period. Instead, it was divided into smaller [[Italian city-states|city-states]] and territories: the [[Kingdom of Naples|Neapolitans]] controlled the south, the [[Republic of Florence|Florentines]] and the [[Papal States|Romans]] at the center, the [[Duchy of Milan|Milanese]] and the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] to the north and west respectively, and the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] to the east. 15th-century Italy was one of the most [[Urbanization|urbanized]] areas in Europe.<ref>Kirshner, Julius, ''Family and Marriage: A socio-legal perspective'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=x9grA0fWpDMC&pg=PA89 ''Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300β1550''], ed. John M. Najemy (Oxford University Press, 2004) p. 89 (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref> Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire's heartland.<ref>Burckhardt, Jacob, ''The Revival of Antiquity'', [http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/3-2.html ''The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407181825/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/3-2.html |date=7 April 2007 }} (trans. by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878)</ref> Historian and political philosopher [[Quentin Skinner]] points out that [[Otto of Freising]] (c. 1114β1158), a German bishop visiting north Italy during the 12th century, noticed a widespread new form of political and social organization, observing that Italy appeared to have exited from [[feudalism]] so that its society was based on merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti-monarchical thinking, represented in the famous early Renaissance [[fresco]] cycle ''[[The Allegory of Good and Bad Government]]'' by [[Ambrogio Lorenzetti]] (painted 1338β1340), whose strong message is about the virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. [[Quentin Skinner|Skinner]] reports that there were many defences of liberty such as the [[Matteo Palmieri]] (1406β1475) celebration of Florentine genius not only in art, sculpture and architecture, but "the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred in Florence at the same time".<ref name="Skinner, Quentin p. 69">Skinner, Quentin, ''The Foundations of Modern Political Thought'', vol I: ''The Renaissance''; vol II: ''The Age of Reformation'', Cambridge University Press, p. 69</ref> Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the Republic of Florence at this time, were also notable for their [[Maritime republics|merchant republics]], especially the Republic of Venice. Although in practice these were [[Oligarchy|oligarchical]], and bore little resemblance to a modern [[democracy]], they did have democratic features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty.<ref name="Skinner, Quentin p. 69"/><ref>Stark, Rodney, ''The Victory of Reason'', New York, Random House, 2005</ref><ref>Martin, J. and Romano, D., ''Venice Reconsidered'', Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University, 2000</ref> The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement.<ref name="burckhardt-republics">Burckhardt, Jacob, ''The Republics: Venice and Florence'', ''[http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/1-7.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407035616/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/1-7.html |date=7 April 2007 }}'', translated by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878.</ref> Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. [[Merchant]]s brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the [[Levant]]. Venice was Europe's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of [[Venetian glass|fine glass]], while Florence was a capital of textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.<ref name="burckhardt-republics" /> ===Black Death=== {{Main|Black Death}} [[File:The Triumph of Death P001393.jpg|thumb|[[Pieter Brueghel the Elder|Pieter Bruegel]]'s ''[[The Triumph of Death]]'' ({{circa|1562}}) reflects the social upheaval and terror that followed the plague that devastated medieval Europe.]] One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in [[Florence]] caused by the [[Black Death]], which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th century Italy. [[Black Death in Italy|Italy]] was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on [[spirituality]] and the [[afterlife]].<ref>[[Barbara Tuchman]] (1978) ''A Distant Mirror'', Knopf {{ISBN|0394400267}}.</ref> It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the [[Patron#Arts|sponsorship]] of religious works of art.<ref>[https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/blackdeath.html The End of Europe's Middle Ages: The Black Death] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309162102/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/blackdeath.html |date=9 March 2013 }} University of Calgary website. (Retrieved 5 April 2007)</ref> However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a [[pandemic]] that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.<ref name="brotton">Brotton, J., ''The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction'', [[Oxford University Press|OUP]], 2006 {{ISBN|0192801635}}.</ref> The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of England, then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the [[bubonic plague]]. Florence's population was nearly halved in the year 1347. As a result of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most favorable position economically.<ref>Netzley, Patricia D. ''Life During the Renaissance''. San Diego: Lucent Books, Inc., 1998.</ref> The demographic decline due to the plague had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30β40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400.<ref>Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). ''A History of European Society. Essentials of Western Civilization'' (Vol. 2, p. 217). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc.</ref> Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall. The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives. The spread of disease was significantly more rampant in areas of poverty. [[Epidemic]]s ravaged cities, particularly children. Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsanitary drinking water, armies, or by poor sanitation. Children were hit the hardest because many diseases, such as [[typhus]] and [[congenital syphilis]], target the immune system, leaving young children without a fighting chance. Children in city dwellings were more affected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy.<ref>"Renaissance And Reformation France" Mack P. Holt pp. 30, 39, 69, 166</ref> The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence's social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hatty|first1=Suzanne E.|last2=Hatty|first2=James|title=Disordered Body: Epidemic Disease and Cultural Transformation|publisher=SUNY Press|page=89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0yJQXmGODgC&pg=PA89|year=1999|isbn=978-0791443651}}</ref> ===Cultural conditions in Florence=== {{Related articles|Florentine Renaissance art}} [[File:Vasari-Lorenzo.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lorenzo de' Medici]], ruler of [[Florence]] and patron of arts (Portrait by [[Vasari]])]] It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in [[Florence]], and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life that may have caused such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized the role played by the [[House of Medici|Medici]], a banking family and later [[dynasty|ducal ruling house]], in patronizing and stimulating the arts. [[Lorenzo de' Medici]] (1449β1492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commission works from the leading artists of Florence, including [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Sandro Botticelli]], and [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]].<ref name="strathern" /> Works by [[Neri di Bicci]], Botticelli, Leonardo, and [[Filippino Lippi]] had been commissioned additionally by the Convent of San Donato in Scopeto in Florence.<ref>Guido Carocci, I dintorni di Firenze, Vol. II, ''Galletti e Cocci, Firenze'', 1907, pp. 336β337</ref> The Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo de' Medici came to power β indeed, before the Medici family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society. Some historians have postulated that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e., because "[[Great man theory|Great Men]]" were born there by chance:<ref name="burckhardt-individual">Burckhardt, Jacob, ''The Development of the Individual'', ''[http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/2-1.html The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003000844/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/docs/burckhardt/2-1.html |date=3 October 2008 }}'', translated by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878.</ref> Leonardo, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in [[Tuscany]]. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men" were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time.<ref>Stephens, J., ''Individualism and the cult of creative personality'', ''The Italian Renaissance'', New York, 1990 p. 121.</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page