Rembrandt

===Insolvency===
[[File:Rembrandt van Rijn - Rembrandts zoon Titus in monniksdracht (Rijksmuseum Amsterdam).jpg|thumb|upright=1|Rembrandt's son [[Titus van Rijn|Titus]] painted [[Titus as a Monk|as a Franciscan monk]] (1660)]]
[[File:Stadsarchief Amsterdam, Afb ANWO00139000001.jpg|thumb|Rembrandt moved to Rozengracht 184, Stadsarchief Amsterdam]] [[File:Rembrandt-Civilis-recto-1.jpg|thumb|Sketch ''The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis'', October 1661 or later]]

Rembrandt, despite his artistic success, found himself in financial turmoil. His penchant for acquiring art, prints, and rare items led him to live beyond his means. In January 1653 the sale of the property formally was finalized but Rembrandt still had to cover half of the remaining mortgage. Creditors began pressing for [[hire purchase|installments]] but Rembrandt, facing financial strain, sought a postponement. The <!--wall of the--> house required repairs prompting Rembrandt to borrow money from friends, including [[Jan Six]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rembrandt |url=https://voetnoot.org/tag/rembrandt/ |website=Voetnoot.org}}</ref>{{Efn|Quite a few people were in debt after the [[First Anglo-Dutch War]].<ref>Dehing, P. (2012). Geld in Amsterdam. Wisselbank en wisselkoersen, 1650–1725. [Universiteit van Amsterdam], p. 142</ref> The Dutch were driven from [[Dutch Brazil|Brazil]] too; the 'Brazilian Adventure' cost the Dutch merchant community dearly.<ref>Professor P. C. Emmer, review of The Rise of Commercial Empires England and the Netherlands in the Age of Mercantilism, 1650–1770, (review no. 345) https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/345 Date accessed: 26 March 2023</ref> }} 

In November 1655, amid a year overshadowed by [[Plague (disease)|plague]] and the drafting of wills, Rembrandt's 14-year-old son Titus took a significant step by drafting a will that designated his father as the sole heir, effectively sidelining his mother's family.<ref>Wexuan, Li. [https://oudholland.rkd.nl/index.php/reviews/32-review-of-machiel-bosman-rembrandts-plan-de-ware-geschiedenis-van-zijn-faillissement "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement"], ''Oud Holland Reviews'', April 2020.</ref><ref>Broos, B. (1999) Das Leben Rembrandts van Rijn (1606–1669). In: Rembrandt Selbstbildnisse, p. 79.</ref> In December Rembrandt orchestrated a sale of his paintings, yet the earnings failed to meet expectations.<ref name="Geschiedenis">{{cite web | url=https://geschiedenismagazine.nl/drie-vragen-aan-machiel-bosman | title=Drie vragen aan Machiel Bosman &#124; Rembrandts plan &#124; Faillissement Rembrandt van Rijn }}</ref> This tumultuous period deeply impacted the art industry, prompting Rembrandt to seek a high court arrangement known as [[cessio bonorum]].<ref>[https://www.aup-online.com/content/journals/10.5117/PM2019.1.004.VELD C.M. in ’t Veld (2019) Rembrandts boedelafstand: een institutionele en politieke benadering]</ref> <!--He was banned from [[Holy Communion]] in February 1656, according to Bosman, hoofdstuk 13, noot 235--> Despite the financial difficulties, Rembrandt's bankruptcy wasn't forced.<!--rather, he seemed to have orchestrated it; possibly to create room for marriage to his beloved Hendrickje.--><ref name="Geschiedenis"/><ref>Wexuan, Li. [https://oudholland.rkd.nl/index.php/reviews/32-review-of-machiel-bosman-rembrandts-plan-de-ware-geschiedenis-van-zijn-faillissement "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement"], ''Oud Holland Reviews'', April 2020.</ref> In July 1656, he declared his [[insolvency]], taking stock and willingly surrendered his assets.<ref name="Bosman">M. Bosman (2019) Rembrandts plan. De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement</ref> Notably, he had already transferred the house to his son.<ref name="DBNL"/> <!--An inventory was made 25, and 26 July. On 8 August the city agreed with the seven principle creditors; Titus came under guardianship.--> Both the authorities and his creditors showed leniency, granting him ample time to settle his debts. [[Jacob J. Hinlopen#Jacob J. Hinlopen, son|Jacob J. Hinlopen]] obviously played a role.<ref>Crenshaw, P. (2006) Rembrandt's Bankruptcy. The artist, his patrons and the art market in seventeenth-century Netherlands, pp. 61, 76.</ref>

In November 1657 another auction was held to sell his paintings, as well as a substantial number of etching plates and drawings, some by renowned artists such as [[Raphael]], [[Andrea Mantegna|Mantegna]] and [[Giorgione]].{{Efn|[[Jan van de Capelle]] bought 500 of the drawings/prints by [[Lucas van Leyden]], [[Hercules Seghers]] and [[Goltzius]] among others.}} Remarkably, Rembrandt was permitted to retain his tools <!--including his etching press?--> as a means of generating income.<ref name="DBNL"/>  Rembrandt lost the guardianship of his son and thus control over his actions. A new guardian, Louis Crayers, claimed the house in settlement of Titus’s debt.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://zenodo.org/records/5152798/files/A83(2021)Rembrandt'sInsolvency.pdf|archiveurl=|url-status=|title=Rembrandt's insolvency: The artist as legal actor|first1=Dave De|last1=Ruysscher|first2=Cornelis In ’T|last2=Veld|date=26 April 2021|archivedate=|journal=Oud Holland – Journal for Art of the Low Countries|volume=134|issue=1|pages=9–24|via=brill.com|doi=10.1163/18750176-13401002|s2cid=236619973 }}</ref>

The sale list comprising 363 items offers insight into Rembrandt's diverse collections, which, encompassed [[Old Master]] paintings, drawings, [[Roman emperors]] busts, [[Greek philosophers]] statues, books (a bible), two [[globes]], bonnets, [[armor]], and various objects from Asia ([[chinaware]]), as well as a collections of [[natural history]] specimens (two lion skins, a [[bird-of-paradise]], [[corals]] and minerals).<ref>Schwartz (1984), pp. 288–291</ref> Unfortunately, the prices realized in the sale were disappointing.<ref>Slive, p. 84</ref> 

By February 1658, Rembrandt' house was sold at a [[foreclosure]] auction, and the family moved to more modest lodgings at [[Rozengracht]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archief.amsterdam/inventarissen/details/10009|title=Inventarissen|website=archief.amsterdam}}</ref> <!--Hendrickje complained at the authorities as she left an oak cupboard.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Lu8BAAAQBAJ&dq=Crayers+Titus+Rembrandt&pg=PA342|title=A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings IV: Self-Portraits|first=Ernst van de|last=Wetering|date=19 July 2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781402044410 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Rembrandt could not sell anything without their knowledge.--> In 1660, he finished ''[[Ahasuerus and Haman at the feast of Esther]]'' which he  sold to [[Jan J. Hinlopen]].<ref>Dudok van Heel, S.A.C. (1969) De Rembrandt's in de verzamelingen Hinlopen. In: Maandblad Amstelodamum, pp. 233-237. (In Dutch.)</ref> Early December 1660, the sale of the house was finalized but the proceeds went directly to Titus' guardian.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archief.amsterdam/inventarissen/details/5061/path/2.6.4.8|title=Inventarissen|website=archief.amsterdam}}</ref><ref>Wexuan, Li. [https://oudholland.rkd.nl/index.php/reviews/32-review-of-machiel-bosman-rembrandts-plan-de-ware-geschiedenis-van-zijn-faillissement "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement"], ''Oud Holland Reviews'', April 2020.</ref> 

Two weeks later, Hendrickje and Titus established a [[dummy corporation]] as art dealers, allowing Rembrandt, who had [[room and board|board and lodging]], to continue his artistic pursuits.<ref>Clark, 1974 p. 105</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amsterdam.nl/stadsarchief/nieuws/rembrandt-0/|title=De geldzaken van Rembrandt - Stadsarchief Amsterdam}}</ref>  In 1661, they secured a contract for a major project at the newly completed [[Royal Palace (Amsterdam)|town hall]]. The resulting work, ''[[The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis]]'', was rejected by [[list of mayors of Amsterdam#17th century|the mayors]] and returned to the painter within a few weeks; the surviving fragment (in Stockholm) is only a quarter of the original.<ref>Clark 1974, pp. 60–61</ref> <!--It is possible Rembrandt was never paid and therefore sold the grave of [[Saskia van Uylenburgh|Saskia]].<ref>Crenshaw, P. (2006) Rembrandt's Bankruptcy. The artist, his patrons and the art market in seventeenth-century Netherlands, p. 85.</ref>--> 

Despite these setbacks, Rembrandt continued to receive significant portrait commissions and completed notable works, such as the [[Sampling Officials]] in 1662.<ref>Bull, et al., p. 29.</ref> <!--Around this time Rembrandt took on his last apprentice, [[Aert de Gelder]].--> It remains a challenge to gauge Rembrandt's wealth accurately<!-- when Saskia died. It was told he possessed gold, pearls and diamonds in the past.--> as he may have overestimated the value of his art collection.<ref name="Bosman"/>  Nonetheless, half of his assets were earmarked for Titus' inheritance.<ref>[[Jan Veth]] (1906) [https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_gid001190601_01/_gid001190601_01_0060.php Rembrandt's verwarde zaken DBNL]</ref> 

In March 1663, with Hendrickje's illness, Titus assumed a more prominent role. Isaac van Hertsbeeck, Rembrandt's primary creditor, went to the [[Hof van Holland|High Court]] and contested Titus' priority for payment, leading to legal battles that Titus ultimately won in 1665 when he came of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://zenodo.org/records/5152798/files/A83(2021)Rembrandt'sInsolvency.pdf|archiveurl=|url-status=|title=Rembrandt's insolvency: The artist as legal actor|first1=Dave De|last1=Ruysscher|first2=Cornelis In ’T|last2=Veld|date=26 April 2021|archivedate=|journal=Oud Holland – Journal for Art of the Low Countries|volume=134|issue=1|pages=9–24|via=brill.com|doi=10.1163/18750176-13401002|s2cid=236619973 }}</ref><!--He lost more than once and had to pay the legal costs and the money he had already received to Titus in 1665 who was by then declared [[of age]].--><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIuiMMq96_gC&q=1665&pg=PA90|title=Hof van Holland, Zeeland en West-Friesland: de hoofdlijnen van het procederen in civiele zaken voor het Hof van Holland, Zeeland en West-Friesland zowel in eerste instantie als in hoger beroep|first1=M.-Ch le|last1=Bailly|first2=Maria Charlotte Le|last2=Bailly|date=28 June 2008|publisher=Uitgeverij Verloren|isbn=978-9087040567 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>Wexuan, Li. [https://oudholland.rkd.nl/index.php/reviews/32-review-of-machiel-bosman-rembrandts-plan-de-ware-geschiedenis-van-zijn-faillissement "Review of: 'Rembrandts plan: De ware geschiedenis van zijn faillissement"], ''Oud Holland Reviews'', April 2020.</ref> During this time, Rembrandt worked on notable pieces like [[the Jewish Bride]] and his final self-portraits but struggled with rent arrears.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.garyschwartzarthistorian.nl/380-whitewashing-rembrandt-part-2/|title=380 Whitewashing Rembrandt, part 2 – Gary Schwartz Art Historian|date=1 March 2020}}</ref> Notably, [[Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Cosimo&nbsp;III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]], visited Rembrandt twice, and returned to Florence with one of the self-portraits.<ref>Clark 1978, p. 34</ref>

Rembrandt outlived both [[Hendrickje Stoffels|Hendrickje]] and Titus; <!--died in September 1668, leaving a pregnant widow behind. Tia was baptized on 22/3/1669!--> he died on Friday [[4 October]] 1669 and was buried four days later in a rented grave in the [[Westerkerk#Rembrandt|Westerkerk]]. His heirs paid a substantial amount of money, suggesting his relative wealth at the time.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120526210656/http://stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl/english/amsterdam_treasures/death/rembrandt/index.en.html Burial register of the Westerkerk with record of Rembrandt's burial], kept at the Amsterdam City Archives</ref>  <!--His daughter-in-law died/buried on 22-10-1669.--> His [[illegitimate child]], Cornelia (1654–1684), eventually moved to [[Old Batavia|Batavia]] in 1670 accompanied by an obscure painter <!--Cornelis Suythof--> and her mother's inheritance.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.vondel.humanities.uva.nl/ecartico/persons/8528 | title=Cornelia van Rijn }}</ref> Titus' considerable inheritance <!--of 12,000 guilders-->passed to his only child, Titia (1669-1715) who married her cousin and lived at [[Blauwburgwal]].<ref>Dudok van Heel, S.A.C. (1987) Dossier Rembrandt, pp. 86–88</ref> In summary, Rembrandt's life was marked by more than just artistic achievements; he navigated numerous legal and financial challenges, leaving a complex legacy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/news/2021/11/rembrandt-made-a-mess-of-his-legal-and-financial-life|title=Rembrandt made a mess of his legal and financial life|date=16 November 2021|website=Leiden University}}</ref> Rembrandt did have a tendency to push the legal limits.”<ref>[https://www.vub.be/en/news/rembrandts-insolvency-no-preconceived-plan-but-smart-entr Rembrandt’s insolvency: No preconceived plan, but smart entrepreneurship. VUB, 2021]
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