New Orleans

===French–Spanish colonial era===
{{main|Louisiana (New France)|New France|Treaty of Paris (1763)|Louisiana (New Spain)|New Spain}}
{{See also|Seven Years' War|French and Indian War|Gulf Coast campaign|Spain and the American Revolutionary War|Third Treaty of San Ildefonso|Treaty of Aranjuez (1801)}}
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''La Nouvelle-Orléans'' (New Orleans) was founded in the spring of 1718 (May 7 has become the traditional date to mark the anniversary, but the actual day is unknown)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wwltv.com/article/news/verify/verify-does-new-orleans-have-an-actual-birthday/289-499684457 |title=VERIFY: Does New Orleans have an actual birthday? |website=WWL |date=December 15, 2017 |access-date=June 30, 2019 |archive-date=June 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190630222522/https://www.wwltv.com/article/news/verify/verify-does-new-orleans-have-an-actual-birthday/289-499684457 |url-status=live }}</ref> by the [[Mississippi Company|French Mississippi Company]], under the direction of [[Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville]], on land inhabited by the [[Chitimacha]]. It was named for [[Philippe II, Duke of Orléans]], who was [[regent]] of the [[Kingdom of France]] at the time.<ref name=":0" /> His title came from the French city of [[Orléans]]. The [[Louisiana (New France)|French colony]] of Louisiana was ceded to the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish Empire]] in the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|1763 Treaty of Paris]], following [[France in the Seven Years' War|France's defeat]] by [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] in the [[Seven Years' War]]. During the [[American Revolutionary War]], New Orleans was an important [[port]] for [[smuggling]] aid to the [[Thirteen Colonies|American revolutionaries]], and transporting military equipment and supplies up the [[Mississippi River]]. Beginning in the 1760s, [[Overseas Filipinos|Filipinos]] began to settle in and around New Orleans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/program1_1.html |title=Part 1. Coolies, Sailors and Settlers |first=Loni |last=Ding |year=2001 |work=NAATA |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |access-date=May 19, 2011 |quote=Some of the Filipinos who left their ships in Mexico ultimately found their way to the bayous of Louisiana, where they settled in the 1760s. The film shows the remains of Filipino shrimping villages in Louisiana, where, eight to ten generations later, their descendants still reside, making them the oldest continuous settlement of Asians in America. |archive-date=May 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516002553/http://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/program1_1.html |url-status=live }}<br />{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/time_06.html |title=1763 Filipinos in Louisiana |first=Loni |last=Ding |year=2001 |work=NAATA |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |access-date=May 19, 2011 |quote=These are the "Louisiana Manila men" with presence recorded as early as 1763. |archive-date=March 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321101112/http://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/time_06.html |url-status=live }}<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.louisianafolklife.org/LT/Articles_Essays/pilipino1.html |title=Mabuhay Pilipino! (Long Life!): Filipino Culture in Southeast Louisiana |last=Westbrook |first=Laura |date=2008 |website=Louisiana Folklife Program |publisher=Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation & Tourism |access-date=May 13, 2018 |archive-date=May 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518005511/http://www.louisianafolklife.org/LT/Articles_Essays/Pilipino1.html |url-status=live }}<br />{{cite magazine |last=Fabros |first=Alex S. Jr. |date=February 1995 |title=When Hilario Met Sally: The Fight Against Anti-Miscegenation Laws |url=http://www.positivelyfilipino.com/magazine/when-hilario-met-sally-the-fight-against-anti-miscegenation-laws |magazine=Filipinas Magazine |via=Positively Filipino |location=Burlingame, California |publisher=Positively Filipino LLC |access-date=August 25, 2018 |archive-date=August 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826005441/http://www.positivelyfilipino.com/magazine/when-hilario-met-sally-the-fight-against-anti-miscegenation-laws |url-status=live }}<br />{{cite book |first=Floro L. |last=Mercene |title=Manila Men in the New World: Filipino Migration to Mexico and the Americas from the Sixteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSqhZphG_gQC&pg=PA106 |year=2007 |publisher=UP Press |isbn=978-971-542-529-2 |pages=106–08 |access-date=September 19, 2018 |archive-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110084847/https://books.google.com/books?id=OSqhZphG_gQC&pg=PA106#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez]] successfully directed a southern campaign against the British from the city in 1779.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Barbara |title=America's Spanish Savior: Bernardo de Gálvez marches to rescue the colonies |journal=MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History |pages=98–104 |date=Autumn 2010 |url=http://www.historynet.com/americas-spanish-savior-bernardo-de-galvez.htm |access-date=June 11, 2016 |archive-date=June 5, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605055349/http://www.historynet.com/americas-spanish-savior-bernardo-de-galvez.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Nueva Orleans'' (the name of New Orleans in [[Spanish language|Spanish]])<ref name="Presas">{{cite book |author=[[José Presas y Marull]] |url=http://simurg.bibliotecas.csic.es/viewer/image/CSIC000227068/23/#topDocAnchor |title=Juicio imparcial sobre las principales causas de la revolución de la América Española y acerca de las poderosas razones que tiene la metrópoli para reconocer su absoluta independencia. (original document) |publisher=Imprenta de D. Pedro Beaume |year=1828 |location=Burdeaux |pages=22, 23 |trans-title=Fair judgment about the main causes of the revolution of Spanish America and about the powerful reasons that the metropolis has for recognizing its absolute independence |access-date=December 18, 2019 |archive-date=November 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032714/http://simurg.bibliotecas.csic.es/viewer/image/CSIC000227068/23/#topDocAnchor |url-status=live }}</ref> remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to [[French First Republic|French]] rule. Nearly all of the surviving 18th-century [[architecture]] of the Vieux Carré ([[French Quarter]]) dates from the Spanish period, notably excepting the [[Old Ursuline Convent, New Orleans|Old Ursuline Convent]].<ref>{{cite web |title=National Park Service. Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings. Ursuline Convent |url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/explorers/sitec23.htm |access-date=September 10, 2010 |archive-date=December 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215122950/https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/explorers/sitec23.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Natchez_Massacre_location.png|alt=|thumb|227x227px|The Revolt took place in what is now [[Natchez National Historical Park]] in [[Natchez, Mississippi]].]]

As a French colony, [[French Louisiana|Louisiana]] faced struggles with numerous [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American tribes]], who were navigating the competing interests of France, Spain, and England, as well as traditional rivals. Notably, the [[Natchez people|Natchez]], whose traditional lands were along the Mississippi near the modern city of [[Natchez, Mississippi]], had a series of wars culminating in the [[Natchez revolt|Natchez Revolt]] that began in 1729 with the Natchez overrunning [[Fort Rosalie]]. Approximately 230 French colonists were killed and the Natchez settlement destroyed, causing fear and concern in New Orleans and the rest of the territory.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Slave Resistance in Natchez, Mississippi (1719–1861) {{!}} Mississippi History Now |url=http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/58/slave-resistance-in-natchez-mississippi-1719-1861 |access-date=2020-10-28 |website=mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us |archive-date=October 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026070753/http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/58/slave-resistance-in-natchez-mississippi-1719-1861 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In retaliation, then-governor [[Étienne Perier (governor)|Étienne Perier]] launched a campaign to [[Genocide of indigenous peoples|completely destroy]] the Natchez nation and its Native allies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gayarré |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Gayarré |title=History of Louisiana: The French Domination |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3IFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA447 |volume=1 |year=1854 |publisher=Redfield |location=New York, New York |pages=447–450 |access-date=August 14, 2021 |archive-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110084803/https://books.google.com/books?id=p3IFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA447#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> By 1731, the Natchez people had been killed, enslaved, or dispersed among other tribes, but the campaign soured relations between France and the territory's Native Americans leading directly into the [[Chickasaw Wars]] of the 1730s.{{sfn|Gayarré|1854|page=450}}

Relations with Louisiana's Native American population remained a concern into the 1740s for governor [[Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial|Marquis de Vaudreuil]]. In the early 1740s traders from the [[Thirteen Colonies]] crossed into the Appalachian Mountains. The Native American tribes would now operate dependent on which of various European colonists would most benefit them. Several of these tribes and especially the [[Chickasaw]] and [[Choctaw]] would trade goods and gifts for their loyalty.<ref>{{cite book |title=Louisiana: A History |edition=6th |editor1-last=Wall |editor1-first=Bennett H. |editor2-last=Rodrigue |editor2-first=John C. |last1=Cummins |first1=Light Townsend |author-link1=Light Townsend Cummins |last2=Kheher Schafer |first2=Judith |last3=Haas |first3=Edward F. |last4=Kurtz |first4=Micahel L. |year=2014 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |location=Malden, Massachusetts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQPZAQAAQBAJ |page=59 |isbn=9781118619292 |access-date=October 28, 2020 |archive-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110084820/https://books.google.com/books?id=aQPZAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The economic issue in the colony, which continued under Vaudreuil, resulted in many raids by Native American tribes, taking advantage of the French weakness. In 1747 and 1748, the Chickasaw would raid along the east bank of the Mississippi all the way south to Baton Rouge. These raids would often force residents of French Louisiana to take refuge in New Orleans proper.

Inability to find labor was the most pressing issue in the young colony. The colonists turned to [[Slavery in the colonial United States|sub-Saharan African slaves]] to make their investments in Louisiana profitable. In the late 1710s the [[Atlantic slave trade|transatlantic slave trade]] imported enslaved Africans into the colony. This led to the biggest shipment in 1716 where several trading ships appeared with slaves as cargo to the local residents in a one-year span.

By 1724, the large number of blacks in Louisiana prompted the institutionalizing of laws governing slavery within the colony.<ref>{{Cite web |last=BlackPast |date=2007-07-28 |title=(1724) Louisiana's Code Noir |url=https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/louisianas-code-noir-1724/ |access-date=2020-10-28 |language=en-US |archive-date=October 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027190710/https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/louisianas-code-noir-1724/ |url-status=live }}</ref> These laws required that slaves be baptized in the Roman Catholic faith, slaves be married in the church; the slave law formed in the 1720s is known as the [[Code Noir]], which would bleed into the antebellum period of the American South as well. Louisiana slave culture had its own distinct Afro-Creole society that called on past cultures and the situation for slaves in the [[New World]]. Afro-Creole was present in religious beliefs and the [[Louisiana Creole]] language. The religion most associated with this period was called [[Louisiana Voodoo|Voodoo]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=From Benin to Bourbon Street: A Brief History of Louisiana Voodoo |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/r7g5ar/from-benin-to-bourbon-street-a-brief-history-of-louisiana-voodoo |access-date=2020-10-28 |website=www.vice.com |date=October 5, 2014 |language=en |archive-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101201752/https://www.vice.com/en/article/r7g5ar/from-benin-to-bourbon-street-a-brief-history-of-louisiana-voodoo |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The True History and Faith Behind Voodoo |url=http://www.frenchquarter.com/true-history-faith-behind-voodoo/ |access-date=2020-10-28 |website=FrenchQuarter.com |language=en-US |archive-date=November 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101013201/https://www.frenchquarter.com/true-history-faith-behind-voodoo/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the city of New Orleans an inspiring mixture of foreign influences created a melting pot of culture that is still celebrated today. By the end of French colonization in Louisiana, New Orleans was recognized commercially in the Atlantic world. Its inhabitants traded across the French commercial system. New Orleans was a hub for this trade both physically and culturally because it served as the exit point to the rest of the globe for the interior of the North American continent.

In one instance the French government established a chapter house of sisters in New Orleans. The [[History of the Ursulines in New Orleans|Ursuline sisters]] after being sponsored by the [[Company of the Indies]], founded a convent in the city in 1727.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Ursulines of Louisiana |last=Cruzat |first=Heloise Hulse |url=https://www2.latech.edu/~bmagee/louisiana_anthology/texts/cruzat/cruzat--ursulines.html |access-date=2020-10-28 |journal=The Louisiana Historical Quarterly |year=1919 |volume=2 |number=1 |archive-date=March 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316070359/https://www2.latech.edu/~bmagee/louisiana_anthology/texts/cruzat/cruzat--ursulines.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At the end of the colonial era, the Ursuline Academy maintained a house of 70 boarding and 100 day students. Today numerous schools in New Orleans can trace their lineage from this academy.

[[File:Archives nationales d’outre-mer - Louisiane - Adrien de Pauger - 1724 - 001.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|1724 plan for Saint Louis Parish Church, New Orleans, Louisiana, by [[Adrien de Pauger]]]] Another notable example is the street plan and architecture still distinguishing New Orleans today. French Louisiana had early architects in the province who were trained as military engineers and were now assigned to design government buildings. Pierre Le Blond de Tour and [[Adrien de Pauger]], for example, planned many early fortifications, along with the street plan for the city of New Orleans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pauger's Savvy Move |url=https://richcampanella.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/article_Campanella_Preservation-in-Print_2014_May_Pauger-Savvy-Move.pdf |access-date=October 28, 2020 |website=richcampanella.com |archive-date=June 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609051806/https://richcampanella.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/article_Campanella_Preservation-in-Print_2014_May_Pauger-Savvy-Move.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> After them in the 1740s, Ignace François Broutin, as engineer-in-chief of Louisiana, reworked the architecture of New Orleans with an extensive public works program.

French policy-makers in Paris attempted to set political and economic norms for New Orleans. It acted autonomously in much of its cultural and physical aspects, but also stayed in communication with the foreign trends as well.

After the French relinquished West Louisiana to the Spanish, New Orleans merchants attempted to ignore Spanish rule and even re-institute French control on the colony. The citizens of New Orleans held a series of public meetings during 1765 to keep the populace in opposition of the establishment of Spanish rule. Anti-Spanish passions in New Orleans reached their highest level after two years of Spanish administration in Louisiana. On October 27, 1768, a mob of local residents, spiked the guns guarding New Orleans and [[Louisiana Rebellion of 1768|took control of the city from the Spanish]].{{sfn|Cummins|Kheher Schafer|Haas|Kurtz|2014|page=70}} The rebellion organized a group to sail for Paris, where it met with officials of the French government. This group brought with them a long memorial to summarize the abuses the colony had endured from the Spanish. King Louis XV and his ministers reaffirmed Spain's sovereignty over Louisiana.
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