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Do not fill this in! ==Later Roman Empire== {{main|Later Roman Empire}} {{see also|Fall of the Western Roman Empire}} [[File:Venice city scenes - in St. Mark's square - St Mark's Basilica (11002237996).jpg|upright=.8|thumb|alt=A sculpture depicting four armed men embracing each other in pairs|''[[Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs]]'' (now in [[Venice]], Italy)]] The [[Roman Empire]] reached its greatest territorial extent during the {{nowrap|2nd century AD}}; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories.{{sfn|Heather|2006|pp=10–14}} Runaway inflation, external pressure on the frontiers, and [[Plague of Cyprian|outbreaks of plague]] combined to create the [[Crisis of the Third Century]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=3–6}} The army doubled in size,{{sfn|Brown|1989|pp=24–25}} and military expenses steadily increased, mainly in response to [[Roman–Persian Wars#Roman–Sassanid War|the war]] with the [[Sasanian Empire]].{{sfn|Heather|2006|p=111}} The need for revenue led to increased taxes, more centralised and bureaucratic state administration, and a decline in numbers of the [[curiales|curial]], or landowning, class.{{sfn|Heather|2006|p=111}}{{sfn|Brown|1989|pp=24–25}} Emperor [[Diocletian]] (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered [[Byzantine Empire|eastern]] and [[Western Roman Empire|western halves]] in 286. This system, which eventually encompassed two [[Augustus (title)|senior]] and two [[Caesar (title)|junior co-emperors]] (hence known as the [[Tetrarchy]]) stabilised the imperial government for about two decades.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=8–11}} After a [[Civil wars of the Tetrarchy|period of civil war]], Constantine the Great restored internal peace, and refounded the city of [[Byzantium]] as the newly renamed eastern capital, [[Constantinople]] in 330.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=23–24}} Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier [[Culture of ancient Rome|classical period]], with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns.{{sfn|Brown|1989|p=34}} Another change was the [[Christianisation of the Roman Empire]], accelerated by the conversion of Constantine, although Christianity emerged as the empire's dominant religion only at the end of the {{nowrap|4th century}}.{{sfn|Brown|1989|pp=65–68, 82–94}} Debates about [[Christian theology]] intensified, and those who persisted with theological views condemned at the [[ecumenical councils]] faced persecution. Such [[Heresy in Christianity|heretic views]] survived through proselytising campaigns outside the empire, or because of local ethnic groups' support in the eastern [[Roman province|provinces]], like [[Arianism]] among the Germanic peoples, or [[Monophysitism]] in Egypt and Syria.{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=43–45}}{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=60–75}} [[Judaism]] remained a tolerated religion, although legislation limited [[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Jews]]' rights.{{sfn|Chazan|2006|p=35}} By the {{nowrap|3rd century}}, the [[Early Christianity|Early Christians]] developed [[Christian symbolism|their own symbolism]], often by reinterpreting popular motifs of pagan [[Roman art]].{{sfn|Nees|2002|pp=32–36}} The solemnity of the Later Roman artists' abstract style effectively visualised Christian messages,{{sfn|Kitzinger|1969|pp=1–15}} and [[Christ in Majesty|Christ's enthroned figure]] became a principal element of [[Early Christian art and architecture|Early Christian art]].{{sfn|Nees|2002|pp=52–56}} Under Constantine, [[basilica]]s, large halls that had been used for administrative and commercial purposes, were adapted for Christian worship.{{sfn|Stalley|1999|pp=21–23}} The first [[illuminated manuscript]]s—hand-written books decorated with colourful miniatures—were produced in parallel with the spread of [[silent reading]] in the {{nowrap|5th century}}.{{sfn|Nees|2002|pp=156–157}} New civil wars between rival emperors diverted soldiers from the empire's frontier forces, allowing [[Barbarian#Modern academia|invaders]] to encroach from the middle of the {{nowrap|4th century}}.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=31–33}} Although these movements of peoples are usually described as "invasions", they were often not just military expeditions but [[Migration Period|mass migrations]] into the empire.{{sfn|Brown|1989|pp=122–124}} In 376, hundreds of thousands of [[Goths]], fleeing from the [[Huns]], received permission from Emperor [[Valens]] (r. 364–78) to settle in Roman territory in the [[Balkans]]. The settlement did not go smoothly, and when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder.{{refn|group=note|The commanders of the Roman military in the area appear to have taken food and other supplies intended to be given to the Goths and instead sold them to the Goths. The revolt was triggered when one of the Roman military commanders attempted to take the Gothic leaders hostage but failed to secure all of them.{{sfn|Collins|2010|p=51}}}} Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the [[Battle of Adrianople]].{{sfn|Heather|2006|pp=145–180}} The [[Alans]], [[Vandals]], and [[Suebi]] crossed into [[Gaul]] in 406, and into modern-day Spain in 409; a year later, the [[Visigoths]], a Gothic group, [[Sack of Rome (410)|sacked the city of Rome]].{{sfn|Heather|2006|p=219}}{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=59–60}} The [[Franks]], [[Alemanni]], and the [[Burgundians]] all ended up in Gaul; the Germanic groups now collectively known as [[Anglo-Saxons]] [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|settled in Britain]];{{sfn|Heather|2006|p=417}} and the Vandals conquered the province of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]].{{sfn|Collins|2010|p=80}} The Hunnic king [[Attila]] (r. 434–53) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452 but the [[Huns#Under Attila|Hunnic confederation]] he led fell apart after his death.{{sfn|James|2009|pp=67–69}} When dealing with the migrations, the Eastern Roman elites combined the deployment of armed forces with gifts and grants of offices to the tribal leaders, whereas the Western aristocrats failed to support the army but also refused to pay tribute to prevent invasions by the tribes.{{sfn|Brown|1989|pp=122–124}} These invasions led to the division of the western section of the empire into smaller political units, ruled by the tribes that had invaded.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|p=79}} The emperors of the {{nowrap|5th century}} were often controlled by military strongmen such as [[Stilicho]] (d. 408), [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]] (d. 454), [[Aspar]] (d. 471), [[Ricimer]] (d. 472), or [[Gundobad]] (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman ancestry.{{sfn|Wickham|2009|pp=96–97}} One of them [[Odoacer]] (d. 493) deposed the last emperor of the west, [[Romulus Augustulus]] (r. 475–76), assumed the title {{lang|la|[[Rex (title)|rex]]}} ('king'), and took full control of Italy, although in theory he ruled as a representative of the eastern emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] (r. 474–91).{{refn|group=note|The year 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire, but an alternative date of 480 is sometimes given, as that was the year Romulus Augustulus' predecessor [[Julius Nepos]] (r. 474–75) died; Nepos had continued to assert that he was the Western emperor while holding onto [[Dalmatia]].{{sfn|Wickham|2009|p=86}}}}{{sfn|Wickham|2009|p=86}} The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories but the [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine emperors]] maintained a claim over the territory.{{sfn|Collins|2010|pp=116–134}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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