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Do not fill this in! ===Knowledge=== [[File:Bertrand Russell 1949.jpg|thumb|[[Bertrand Russell]] famously brought attention to the distinction between propositional knowledge and knowledge by acquaintance]] {{Main|Knowledge}} The entry "Knowledge How" of the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''<ref name="SEP Knowledge How"/> mentions that introductory classes to epistemology often start their analysis of knowledge by pointing out three different senses of "knowing" something: "[[Propositional knowledge|knowing that]]" (knowing the truth of propositions), "[[Procedural knowledge|knowing how]]" (understanding how to perform certain actions), and "[[Knowledge by acquaintance|knowing by acquaintance]]" (directly perceiving an object, being familiar with it, or otherwise coming into contact with it). This modern teaching of epistemology is primarily concerned with the first of these forms of knowledge, propositional knowledge. All three senses of "knowing" can be seen in the ordinary use of the word. In mathematics, it can be known {{em|that}} 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowing {{em|how}} to add two numbers, and knowing a {{em|person}} (e.g., knowing other persons,<ref name="Talbert2015"/><ref name="Benton2017"/> or knowing oneself), {{em|place}} (e.g., one's hometown), {{em|thing}} (e.g., cars), or {{em|activity}} (e.g., addition). While these distinctions are not explicit in English, they are explicitly made in other languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, German, and Dutch (although some languages closely related to English have been said to retain these verbs, such as [[Scots language|Scots]]).{{Refn|group=note|name=Scots_witVsken}}. In French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, German, and Dutch 'to know (a person)' is translated using {{lang|fr|connaître}}, {{lang|pt|conhecer}}, {{lang|es|conocer}}, {{lang|ro|a cunoaște}}, and {{lang|de|kennen}} (both German and Dutch) respectively, whereas 'to know (how to do something)' is translated using {{lang|fr|savoir}}, {{lang|es|saber}} (both Portuguese and Spanish), {{lang|ro|a şti}}, {{lang|de|wissen}}, and {{lang|nl|weten}}. Modern Greek has the verbs {{lang|el|γνωρίζω}} ({{lang|el-Latn|gnorízo}}) and {{lang|el|ξέρω}} ({{lang|el-Latn|kséro}}). Italian has the verbs {{lang|it|conoscere}} and {{lang|it|sapere}} and the nouns for ''knowledge'' are {{lang|it|conoscenza}} and {{lang|it|sapienza}}. German has the verbs {{lang|de|wissen}} and {{lang|de|kennen}}; the former implies knowing a fact, the latter knowing in the sense of being acquainted with and having a working knowledge of. There is also a noun derived from {{lang|de|kennen}}, namely {{lang|de|Erkennen}}, which has been said to imply knowledge in the form of recognition or acknowledgment.<ref name="Benton2017" />{{Rp|at=esp. Section 1.}} The verb itself implies a process of going from one state to another, from a state of "not-{{lang|de|erkennen}}" to a state of true {{lang|de|erkennen}}. This verb seems the most appropriate in terms of describing the "episteme" in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name "{{lang|de|{{ill|Erkenntnistheorie|de|vertical-align=sup}}}}". The theoretical interpretation and significance of these linguistic issues remains controversial. The distinction is most pronounced in Polish, where {{lang|pl|wiedzieć}} means "to know", {{lang|pl|umieć}} means "to know how" and {{lang|pl|znać}} means "to be familiar with" (to "know" a person). In his paper ''On Denoting'' and his later book ''Problems of Philosophy'', [[Bertrand Russell]] brought a great deal of attention to the distinction between "[[Descriptive knowledge|knowledge by description]]" and "[[knowledge by acquaintance#Bertrand Russell|knowledge by acquaintance]]". [[Gilbert Ryle]] is similarly credited with bringing more attention to the distinction between knowing how and knowing that in ''[[The Concept of Mind]]''. In ''Personal Knowledge'', [[Michael Polanyi]] argues for the epistemological relevance of knowledge how and knowledge that; using the example of the act of balance involved in riding a bicycle, he suggests that the theoretical knowledge of the physics involved in maintaining a state of balance cannot substitute for the practical knowledge of how to ride, and that it is important to understand how both are established and grounded. This position is essentially Ryle's, who argued that a failure to acknowledge the distinction between "knowledge that" and "knowledge how" leads to [[infinite regress]]. ====''A priori'' and ''a posteriori'' knowledge==== {{Main|A priori and a posteriori}} One of the most important distinctions in epistemology is between what can be known ''a priori'' (independently of experience) and what can be known ''a posteriori'' (through experience). The terms originate from the analytic methods of Aristotle's ''[[Organon]]'', and may be roughly defined as follows:<ref name="SEP apriori"/> * ''[[A priori and a posteriori|A priori]]'' knowledge is knowledge that is independent of experience. This means that it can be known or justified prior to or independently of any specific empirical evidence or sensory observations. Such knowledge is obtained through reasoning, logical analysis, or introspection. Examples of ''a priori'' knowledge include mathematical truths, logical tautologies (e.g., "All bachelors are unmarried"), and certain fundamental principles of reason and logic. One of the key proponents of'' a priori '' knowledge was the philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]]. He argued that certain fundamental truths about the nature of reality, such as the concepts of space, time, causality, and the categories of understanding, are not derived from experience, but are inherent in the structure of the mind itself. According to Kant, these ''a priori'' categories enable the organization and interpretation of sensory experiences, giving rise to an understanding of the world. * ''[[A priori and a posteriori|A posteriori]]'' knowledge is knowledge that is derived from experience. It is based on empirical evidence, sensory perception, and observations of the external world. ''A posteriori'' knowledge is contingent upon the information gained through the senses and relies on the collection and interpretation of data. Scientific observations and experimental results are typical examples of ''a posteriori'' knowledge. Views that emphasize the importance of ''a priori'' knowledge are generally classified as [[rationalist]]. Views that emphasize the importance of ''a posteriori'' knowledge are generally classified as [[empiricist]].<ref name="SEP rationalism-empiricism"/><ref name=Sangeetha2021/> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! 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