Crucifixion of Jesus

==Other accounts and references==
{{See also|Josephus on Jesus|Tacitus on Christ}}
[[File:The Crucifixion Christ on the Cross between two thieves (f. 80) Cropped.jpg|thumb|Christ on the Cross between two thieves. Illumination from the ''Vaux Passional'', 16th century]]
[[File:Buhl StJeanBaptiste27.JPG|thumb|''Crucifixion'', from the [[Buhl Altarpiece]], a particularly large [[Gothic painting|Gothic]] [[oil on panel]] painting from the 1490s]]

===Mara Bar-Serapion===
An early non-Christian reference to the crucifixion of Jesus is likely to be [[Mara Bar-Serapion on Jesus|Mara Bar-Serapion's letter]] to his son, written some time after AD 73 but before the 3rd century AD.<ref name=Ute>''Evidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian'' by Ute Possekel 1999 {{ISBN|90-429-0759-2}} pp.&nbsp;29–30</ref><ref name="Chilton455"/><ref name=Cradle110 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} p. 110</ref> The letter includes no Christian themes and the author is presumed to be neither [[Jewish]] nor Christian.<ref name=Ute/><ref name="Chilton455"/><ref name=VVoorst5355>''Jesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence'' by Robert E. Van Voorst 2000 {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}} pp.&nbsp;53–55</ref> The letter refers to the retributions that followed the unjust treatment of three wise men: [[Socrates]], [[Pythagoras]], and "the wise king" of the Jews.<ref name=Ute /><ref name=Cradle110 /> Some scholars see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the "[[Jesus, King of the Jews|king of the Jews]]" is about the crucifixion of Jesus, while others place less value in the letter, given the ambiguity in the reference.<ref name=VVoorst5355/><ref name=Evans41 >''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' by Craig A. Evans 2001 {{ISBN|978-0-391-04118-9}} p. 41</ref>

===Josephus===
In the ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' (written about 93 AD) Jewish historian [[Josephus]] stated ([[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 3|Ant 18.3]]) that Jesus was crucified by Pilate, writing that:<ref name=Theissen81 />
<blockquote>Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man,&nbsp;... He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles&nbsp;... And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross&nbsp;...</blockquote>

Most modern scholars agree that while this Josephus passage (called the ''[[Testimonium Flavianum]]'') includes some later [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolations]], it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate.<ref name="Kostenberger104"/><ref name="Evans, Craig A. 2001 page 316"/> [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] states that there is "broad consensus" among scholars regarding the nature of an authentic reference to the crucifixion of Jesus in the ''Testimonium''.<ref>Dunn, James (2003). ''Jesus remembered''. {{ISBN|0-8028-3931-2}}. p. 141.</ref>

===Tacitus===
Early in the second century another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made by [[Tacitus]], generally considered one of the greatest Roman historians.<ref name=Voorst39 >Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence''. Eerdmans Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}}. pp.&nbsp;39–42.</ref><ref>Ferguson, Everett (2003). ''Backgrounds of Early Christianity''. {{ISBN|0-8028-2221-5}}. p. 116.</ref> Writing in ''[[The Annals]]'' (c. 116 AD), Tacitus [[Tacitus on Christ|described the persecution]] of Christians by Nero and stated ([[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|Annals 15.44]]) that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus:<ref name=Theissen81 >Theissen 1998, pp.&nbsp;81–83</ref><ref name="Green1997">{{Cite book|last=Green|first=Joel B.|year=1997|title=The Gospel of Luke: new international commentary on the New Testament|page=168|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=koYlW6IoOjMC&q=Joel+B.+Green,+The+Gospel+of+Luke,+(Eerdmans,+1997),+page+168&pg=PR85|isbn=0-8028-2315-7|publisher=W. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.|location=Grand Rapids, Mich.|access-date=November 10, 2020|archive-date=April 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407154444/https://books.google.com/books?id=koYlW6IoOjMC&q=Joel+B.+Green,+The+Gospel+of+Luke,+%28Eerdmans,+1997%29,+page+168&pg=PR85|url-status=live}}</ref>
<blockquote>Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus.</blockquote>

Scholars generally consider the [[Tacitus on Christ|Tacitus reference]] to the execution of Jesus by Pilate to be genuine, and of historical value as an independent Roman source.<ref name=Voorst39 /><ref name= MAPowell33 >''Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell, 1998, {{ISBN|0-664-25703-8}}. p. 33.</ref><ref name=CEvans42 >''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' by Craig A. Evans. 2001. {{ISBN|0-391-04118-5}}. p. 42.</ref><ref>''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 {{ISBN|0-7425-6833-4}} p. 293</ref><ref>Tacitus' characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the [[Eucharist]] rituals Christians ate the body and drank the blood of their God, interpreting the symbolic ritual as cannibalism by Christians. References: ''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 {{ISBN|0-7425-6833-4}} p. 293 and ''An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity'' by Delbert Royce Burkett 2002 {{ISBN|0-521-00720-8}} p. 485</ref><ref>''Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation'' by Helen K. Bond 2004 {{ISBN|0-521-61620-4}} p. xi</ref> Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that Tacitus provides a non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.{{sfnp|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=127}}

===Talmud===
Another possible reference to the crucifixion ("hanging", cf. {{Bibleverse|Luke|23:39|KJV}}; [[Galatians 3:13]]) is found in the Babylonian [[Talmud]]:
{{Blockquote|On the eve of the Passover [[Yeshu]] was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, "He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to [[apostasy]]. Anyone who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf." But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover.|[[Sanhedrin (tractate)|Sanhedrin 43a]]| ''Babylonian Talmud'' (Soncino Edition)}}

Although the question of the equivalence of the identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated, many historians agree that the above 2nd-century passage is likely to be about Jesus, [[Peter Schäfer]] stating that there can be no doubt that this narrative of the execution in the Talmud refers to Jesus of Nazareth.<ref>''Jesus in the Talmud'' by Peter Schäfer (2009) {{ISBN|0-691-14318-8}} pp. 141 and 9</ref> [[Robert Van Voorst]] states that the Sanhedrin 43a reference to Jesus can be confirmed not only from the reference itself, but from the context that surrounds it.<ref>Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}}. pp.&nbsp;177–118.</ref> Sanhedrin 43a relates that Yeshu had been condemned to death by [[Hasmonean dynasty|the royal government of Judaea]] – this lineage was stripped of all legal authority upon [[Herod the Great]]'s ascension to the throne in 37 BC, meaning the execution had to have taken place close to 40 years before Jesus was even born.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.angelfire.com/mt/talmud/jesusnarr.html |title=The Jesus Narrative In The Talmud |author=Gil Student |publisher=Talmud: The Real Truth About the Talmud |date=2000 |access-date=2018-04-18 |archive-date=January 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130224616/http://www.angelfire.com/mt/talmud/jesusnarr.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>L. Patterson, "Origin of the Name Panthera", ''JTS'' 19 (1917–18), pp. 79–80, cited in Meier, p. 107 n. 48</ref> According to another account, he was executed on request of the [[Pharisees]] leaders.<ref name=Chilton455 >''Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research'' edited by Bruce Chilton, Craig A. Evans 1998 {{ISBN|90-04-11142-5}} pp.&nbsp;455–457</ref>

===Islam===
[[Islamic view of Jesus' death|Muslims maintain]] that Jesus was not crucified and that those who thought they had killed him had mistakenly killed [[Judas Iscariot]], [[Simon of Cyrene]], or someone else in his place.<ref name=Bra127>George W. Braswell Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRenjUoud3kC&pg=PA127 What You Need to Know about Islam and Muslims] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123113213/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRenjUoud3kC&pg=PA127 |date=November 23, 2022 }}'', p. 127 (B & H Publishing Group, 2000). {{ISBN|978-0-8054-1829-3}}.</ref> They hold this belief based on various interpretations of {{Cite quran|4|157|e=158|style=ref}}, which states: "they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them [or it appeared so unto them],&nbsp;... Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself".<ref name=Bra127/>

===Gnosticism===
Some early Christian [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] sects, believing Jesus did not have a physical substance, denied that he was crucified.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dunderberg, Ismo |author2=Christopher Mark Tuckett; Kari Syreeni |title=Fair play: diversity and conflicts in early Christianity: essays in honour of Heikki Räisänen |year=2002 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-12359-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSVNH95ckNUC |page=488 |access-date=November 28, 2015 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407154440/https://books.google.com/books?id=cSVNH95ckNUC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Pagels |first=Elaine H. |title= The Gnostic gospels |year=2006 |publisher= Phoenix |isbn=0-7538-2114-1 |page=192 |author-link= Elaine Pagels}}</ref> In response, [[Ignatius of Antioch]] insisted that Jesus was truly born and was truly crucified and wrote that those who held that Jesus only seemed to suffer only seemed to be Christians.<ref>[http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=Barclay+%22truly+crucified%22+%22tenets+of+Gnosticism%22&btnG= William Barclay, ''Great Themes of the New Testament''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032535/http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=Barclay+%22truly+crucified%22+%22tenets+of+Gnosticism%22&btnG= |date=January 28, 2016 }}. Westminster John Knox Press. 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-664-22385-4}}. p. 41.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-smyrnaeans-roberts.html|title=St. Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans (Roberts-Donaldson translation)|website=www.earlychristianwritings.com|access-date=March 10, 2012|archive-date=March 23, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323002406/http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-smyrnaeans-roberts.html|url-status=live}}</ref>