Confucianism Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Doctrines== ===Theory and theology=== [[File:天-oracle.svg|upright|thumb|[[Zhou dynasty]] [[oracle bone script|oracular]] version of the grapheme for ''Tian'', representing a man with a head informed by the north [[celestial pole]]{{sfnb|Didier|2009|loc=''passim'' and p. 3, Vol. III, for the graphic interpretation of the character}}]] {{Further|Religious Confucianism|Confucian theology}} Confucianism revolves around the pursuit of the unity of the individual self and ''[[tian]]'' ("heaven"). Put it another way, it focuses on the relationship between humanity and heaven.{{sfnb|Adler|2014|p=10}}{{sfnb|Tay|2010|p=100}} The principle or way of Heaven (''tian [[Li (Neo-Confucianism)|li]]'' or ''tian [[tao]]'') is the order of the world and the source of divine authority.{{sfnb|Tay|2010|p=100}} ''Tian li'' or ''tian tao'' is [[monism|monistic]], meaning that it is singular and indivisible. Individuals may realise their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order.{{sfnb|Tay|2010|p=100}} This transformation of the self may be extended to the family and society to create a harmonious community.{{sfnb|Tay|2010|p=100}} Joël Thoraval studied Confucianism as a diffused [[civil religion]] in contemporary China, finding that it expresses itself in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven and Earth ({{zhi|c=地|p=[[Di (Chinese concept)|dì]]}}), the sovereign or the government ({{zhi|c=君|p=jūn}}), ancestors ({{zhi|t=親|p=qīn}}), and masters ({{zhi|c=師|p=shī}}).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Thoraval |first=Joël |year=2016 |title=Heaven, Earth, Sovereign, Ancestors, Masters: Some Remarks on the Politico-Religious in China Today |publisher=Centre for Studies on China, Korea and Japan |issue=5 |location=Paris |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01374321/document |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116171349/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01374321/document |archive-date=16 January 2018 |series=Occasional Papers}}</ref> According to the scholar [[Stephan Feuchtwang]], in Chinese cosmology, which is not merely Confucian but shared by many [[Chinese folk religion|Chinese religions]], "the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy" (''[[hundun]]'' and ''[[qi]]''), and is organized through the polarity of [[yin and yang]] that characterises any thing and life. Creation is therefore a continuous ordering; it is not creation ''[[creatio ex nihilo|''ex nihilo'']].'' "Yin and yang are the invisible and visible, the receptive and the active, the unshaped and the shaped; they characterise the yearly cycle (winter and summer), the landscape (shady and bright), the sexes (female and male), and even sociopolitical history (disorder and order). Confucianism is concerned with finding "middle ways" between yin and yang at every new configuration of the world."''{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|pp=146–150}}'' Confucianism conciliates both the inner and outer polarities of spiritual cultivation—that is to say [[self-cultivation]] and world redemption—synthesised in the ideal of "sageliness within and kingliness without".{{sfnb|Tay|2010|p=100}} ''[[Ren (philosophy)|Ren]]'', translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man may achieve oneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence. In the ''{{ill|Datong Shu|zh|大同书}}'', it is defined as "to form one body with all things" and "when the self and others are not separated{{nbsp}}... compassion is aroused".{{sfnb|Tay|2010|p=102}} "Lord Heaven" and "[[Jade Emperor]]" were terms for a Confucianist [[King of the gods|supreme deity]] who was an [[Anthropomorphism|anthropromorphized]] ''tian'',<ref name=":10026">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |editor-last=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=326, 393, 401 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> and some conceptions of it thought of the two names as synonymous. ====''Tian'' and the gods==== [[File:Precessional north pole (Běijí 北极) in α Ursae Minoris, drawing a wàn 卍 in the four phases of time.svg|thumb|Like other symbols such as the ''[[sauwastika]]'',{{sfnb|Didier|2009|p=256, Vol. III}} {{zhi|out=c|p=wàn|c=卍|l=all things}} in Chinese, the [[Mesopotamia]]n ''[[dingir]]'' or ''[[anu]]'' {{lang-akk|𒀭𒀭|label=none}},<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |title=Dynamics in the History of Religions between Asia and Europe: Encounters, Notions, and Comparative Perspectives |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-22535-0 |editor-last=Krech |editor-first=Volkhard |location=Leiden |pages=85–110 |chapter=Religious Formations and Intercultural Contacts in Early China |doi=10.1163/9789004225350_005 |editor-last2=Steinicke |editor-first2=Marion}} pp. 97–98, note 26.</ref> and also the Chinese {{zhi|c=巫|p=[[wu (shaman)|wu]]|l=shaman}} (in [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] script represented by a graph resembling the [[cross potent]] ☩),{{sfnb|Didier|2009|p=257, Vol. I}} ''Tian'' refers to the northern [[celestial pole]] ({{zhi|c=北極|p=běijí}}), the pivot and the vault of the sky with its spinning constellations.{{sfnb|Didier|2009|loc=''passim''}} Here is an approximate representation of the {{zhp|p=tiānmén|c=天門|l=gate of heaven}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reiter |first=Florian C. |title=Purposes, Means and Convictions in Daoism: A Berlin Symposium |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2007 |isbn=978-3-447-05513-0 |page=190}}</ref> or {{zhp|p=tiānshū|t=天樞|l=pivot of heaven}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Milburn |first=Olivia |title=The Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Yan |publisher=Brill |year=2016 |isbn=978-90-04-30966-1 |series=Sinica Leidensia}} p. 343, note 17.</ref> as the precessional north celestial pole, with [[Polaris|α Ursae Minoris]] as the [[pole star]], with the spinning [[Big Dipper|Chariot]] constellations in the four phases of time. According to Reza Assasi's theories, the {{lang|zh-hant|卍}} may not only be centred in the current precessional pole at α Ursae Minoris, but also very near to the north [[orbital pole|ecliptic pole]] if [[Draco (constellation)|Draco]] ({{zhi|p=Tiānlóng|s=天龙|t=天龍}}) is conceived as one of its two beams.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Assasi |first=Reza |year=2013 |title=Swastika: The Forgotten Constellation Representing the Chariot of Mithras |url=https://www.academia.edu/4087681 |journal=Anthropological Notebooks |type=Supplement: Šprajc, Ivan; Pehani, Peter, eds. ''Ancient Cosmologies and Modern Prophets: Proceedings of the 20th Conference of the European Society for Astronomy in Culture'' |volume=XIX |issn=1408-032X |number=2}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Whether centred in the change-ful precessional north [[celestial pole]] or in the fixed north [[orbital pole|ecliptic pole]], the spinning constellations draw the {{lang|zh-hant|卍}} symbol around the centre.}}]] {{Main|Tian}} ''Tian'', a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to the God of Heaven, the [[celestial pole|northern culmen of the skies]] and its spinning stars,{{sfnb|Didier|2009|loc=''passim''}} earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to 'Heaven and Earth' (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control.<ref name="Hagen">{{Cite web |last=Hagen |first=Kurtis |title=Confucian Key Terms – Tian 天 |url=http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/kurtis.hagen/keyterms_tian.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141203164801/http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/kurtis.hagen/keyterms_tian.html |archive-date=3 December 2014 |publisher=State University of New York at Plattsburgh}}</ref> There are so many uses in Chinese thought that it is impossible to give a single English translation.{{sfnb|Littlejohn|2010|p=35}} Confucius used the term in a mystical way.{{sfnb|Hsu|2014}} He wrote in the ''[[Analects]]'' (7.23) that ''tian'' gave him life, and that ''tian'' watched and judged (6.28; 9.12). In 9.5 Confucius says that a person may know the movements of ''tian'', and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe. In 17.19 Confucius says that ''tian'' spoke to him, though not in words. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that ''tian'' was not to be interpreted as a personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator.{{sfnb|Littlejohn|2010|pp=35–36}} Rather it is similar to what [[Taoists]] meant by ''Dao'': "the way things are" or "the regularities of the world",<ref name=Hagen/> which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of ''[[physis]]'', "nature" as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order.{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|p=146}} ''Tian'' may also be compared to the ''[[Brahman]]'' of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Veda|Vedic]] traditions.{{sfnb|Adler|2014|p=10}} The scholar Promise Hsu, in the wake of Robert B. Louden, explained 17:19 ("What does ''Tian'' ever say? Yet there are four seasons going round and there are the hundred things coming into being. What does ''Tian'' say?") as implying that even though ''Tian'' is not a "speaking person", it constantly "does" through the rhythms of nature, and communicates "how human beings ought to live and act", at least to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it.{{sfnb|Hsu|2014}} [[Duanmu Ci]], a disciple of Confucius, said that ''Tian'' had set the master on the path to become a wise man (9.6). In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that ''Tian'' gave him life, and from it he had developed right virtue (''[[De (Chinese)|de]]''). In 8.19, he says that the lives of the sages are interwoven with ''Tian''.{{sfnb|Littlejohn|2010|p=35}} Regarding personal gods (''[[shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]'', energies who emanate from and reproduce ''Tian'') enliving nature, in the ''Analects'' Confucius says that it is appropriate (''[[Yi (philosophy)|yi]]'') for people to worship ({{lang-zh|labels=no|c=敬|p=jìng}}) them,{{sfnb|Littlejohn|2010|p=36}} although only through proper rites (''[[Li (Confucianism)|li]]''), implying respect of positions and discretion.{{sfnb|Littlejohn|2010|p=36}} Confucius himself was a ritual and [[sacrifice|sacrificial]] master.{{sfnb|Littlejohn|2010|p=37}} Answering to a disciple who asked whether it is better to sacrifice to the god of the stove or to the god of the family (a popular saying), in 3.13 Confucius says that in order to appropriately pray gods one should first know and respect Heaven. In 3.12, he explains that religious rituals produce meaningful experiences,{{sfnb|Littlejohn|2010|pp=36–37}} and one has to offer sacrifices in person, acting in presence, otherwise "it is the same as not having sacrificed at all". Rites and sacrifices to the gods have an ethical importance: they generate good life, because taking part in them leads to the overcoming of the self.{{sfnb|Shen|Shun|2007|pp=278–279}} Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small part of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his [[ancestor]]s.{{sfnb|Littlejohn|2010|p=37}} Some Confucian movements worship Confucius,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chuarsa |first=Ira |date=2017-11-14 |title=The Invention of Indonesian Confucianism |url=https://crcs.ugm.ac.id/the-invention-of-indonesian-confucianism/ |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=Program Studi Agama dan Lintas Budaya Center for Religious and Cross-cultural Studies Graduate School, Universitas Gadjah Mada |publisher=[[Gadjah Mada University]] |language=en-US}}</ref> although not as a supreme being or anything else approaching the power of ''tian'' or the ''[[tao]]'', and/or gods from [[Chinese folk religion]]. These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} Other movements, such as [[Mohism]] which was later absorbed by Taoism, developed a more [[theism|theistic]] idea of Heaven.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dubs |first=Homer |year=1960 |title=Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy |journal=Philosophy East and West |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |volume=9 |pages=163–172 |doi=10.2307/1397096 |jstor=1397096 |number=3–4}}</ref> Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in the fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature.{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|p=146}} However, Confucianism does venerate many aspects of nature<ref name=":0" /> and also respects various ''tao'',<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Dao |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/dao |access-date=2023-04-30 |last=Stefon |first=Matt |date=2012 |language=en}}{{pb}}{{Cite journal |last=Wong |first=Pak-Hang |date=2012-03-01 |title=Dao, Harmony and Personhood: Towards a Confucian Ethics of Technology |journal=Philosophy & Technology |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=68–71, 76–78, 80–81 |doi=10.1007/s13347-011-0021-z |s2cid=256085508 |issn=2210-5441 |via=[[Springer Science+Business Media|SpringerLink]]|doi-access=free }}</ref> as well as what Confucius saw as the main ''tao'', the "[Way] of Heaven."<ref name=":1" /> The Way of Heaven involves "lifelong and sincere devotion to traditional cultural forms" and ''[[wu wei]]'', "a state of spontaneous harmony between individual inclinations and the sacred Way".<ref name=":1" /> [[Kelly James Clark]] argued that Confucius himself saw ''Tian'' as an anthropomorphic god that Clark hypothetically refers to as "Heavenly Supreme Emperor", although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |title=Classical Theism: New Essays on the Metaphysics of God |date=2023 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-000-83688-2 |editor-last=Jonathan Fuqua |chapter=Searching for the Ineffable: Classical Theism and Eastern Thought about God<!-- pageno unknown -- info is from the e-book--> |oclc=1353836889 |editor-last2=Robert C. Koons}}</ref> ===Social morality and ethics=== {{further|Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues}} <!--"Five precepts" links here. Please adjust link if this subsection is removed or renamed. Thanks.--> [[File:张挥公大殿.jpg|thumb|Worship at the Great Temple of Lord Zhang Hui ({{zhi|s=张挥公大殿|p=Zhāng Huī gōng dàdiàn}}), the cathedral [[ancestral shrine]] of the [[Zhang (surname)|Zhang]] lineage corporation, at their [[ancestral home (Chinese)|ancestral home]] in [[Qinghe County, Hebei|Qinghe]], [[Hebei]]]] [[File:Mazhan Zhen - Houxian Cun - P1220012.JPG|thumb|Ancestral temple of the [[Zeng]] lineage and Houxian village cultural centre, [[Cangnan County|Cangnan]], [[Zhejiang]]]] As explained by Stephan Feuchtwang, the order coming from Heaven preserves the world, and has to be followed by humanity finding a "middle way" between yin and yang forces in each new configuration of reality. Social harmony or morality is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors in the male line, at [[ancestral shrines]].{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|p=146}} Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic.<ref name=Juergensmeyer/> They may be practiced by all the members of a society. Confucian ethics is characterised by the promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants, elaborated by Confucian scholars out of the inherited tradition during the [[Han dynasty]].<ref name="Runes">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofphil0000unse/page/338 |title=Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Philosophical Library |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-8022-2388-3 |editor-last=Runes |editor-first=Dagobert D. |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofphil0000unse/page/338 338]}}</ref> The Five Constants are:<ref name=Runes/> * ''[[Ren (Confucianism)|Ren]]'' (benevolence, humaneness) * ''[[Yi (philosophy)|Yi]]'' (righteousness, justice) * ''[[Li (Confucianism)|Li]]'' (propriety, rites) * ''Zhi'' ({{zhi|c={{linktext|智}}|p=zhì}}: wisdom, knowledge) * ''[[Xin (virtue)|Xin]]'' (sincerity, faithfulness) These are accompanied by the classical four virtues ({{zhi|s=四字|p=sìzì}}), one of which (''Yi'') is also included among the Five Constants: * ''Yi'' (see above) * [[Loyalty]] ({{lang-zh|labels=no|c=忠|p=zhōng}}) * [[Filial piety]] ({{lang-zh|labels=no|c=孝|p=xiào}}) * {{linktext|Continence}} ({{lang-zh|labels=no|t={{linktext|節}}|s={{linktext|节}}|p=jié}}) There are many other traditionally Confucian values, such as {{zhl|s={{linktext|诚}}|p=chéng|l=honesty}}, {{zhl|c={{linktext|勇}}|p=yǒng|l=bravery}}, {{zhl|c={{linktext|廉}}|p=lián|l=incorruptibility}}, {{zhl|c={{linktext|恕}}|p=shù|l=kindness, forgiveness}}, a {{zhl|s={{linktext|耻}}|p=chǐ|l=sense of right and wrong}}, {{zhl|s={{linktext|温}}|p=wēn|l=gentleness}}, {{zhl|c={{linktext|良}}|p=liáng|l=kindheartenedness}}, {{zhl|c={{linktext|恭}}|p=gōng|l=respect}}, {{zhl|s={{linktext|俭}}|p=jiǎn|l=frugality}}, and {{zhi|s={{linktext|让}}|p=ràng|l=modesty}}). ====Ren==== {{Main|Ren (Confucianism)}} ''Ren'' is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being [[altruistic]]. It is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. It is considered the essence of the human being, endowed by Heaven, and at the same time the means by which someone may act according to the principle of Heaven and become one with it.{{sfnb|Tay|2010|p=102}} [[Yan Hui (disciple of Confucius)|Yan Hui]], Confucius's most outstanding student, once asked his master to describe the rules of ''ren'' and Confucius replied, "one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper."<ref>Analects 12:1</ref> Confucius also defined ''ren'' in the following way: "wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others."<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/analects/yong-ye/zh?en=on |chapter=Yong Ye |via=中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org) |title=論語 |language=zh,en |script-chapter=zh:雍也 }}</ref> Another meaning of ''ren'' is "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself."<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/analects/yan-yuan/zh?en=on |chapter=Yan Yuan |via=中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org) |title=論語 |language=zh,en |script-chapter=zh:顏淵}}</ref> Confucius also said, "''ren'' is not far off; he who seeks it has already found it." ''Ren'' is close to man and never leaves him. ====Rite and centring==== [[File:Guan County Temple of Confucius.jpg|thumb|Temple of Confucius in [[Dujiangyan City|Dujiangyan]], [[Chengdu]], [[Sichuan]]]] [[File:Korean Confucianism-Chugyedaeje-02.jpg|thumb|[[Korean Confucianism|Korean Confucian]] rite in [[Jeju Province|Jeju]]]] {{Main|Li (Confucianism)}} ''Li'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=禮|s=礼}}) is a word which finds its most extensive use in [[Confucian]] and post-Confucian [[Chinese philosophy]]. ''[[Li (Confucianism)|Li]]'' is variously translated as '[[Ritual|rite]]' or '[[reason]]', 'ratio' in the pure sense of [[Veda|Vedic]] {{transliteration|sa|[[ṛta]]}} ('right', 'order') when referring to the [[cosmos|cosmic]] law, but when referring to its realisation in the context of human social behaviour it has also been translated as '[[convention (norm)|customs]]', 'measures' and 'rules', among other terms. ''Li'' also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. According to Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as "what makes the invisible visible", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms—Heaven, Earth and humanity. This practice is defined as "centering" ({{zhi|c=央|p=yāng}} or {{zhi|c=中|p=zhōng}}). Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have the ability to cultivate and centre natural forces.{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|p=150}} ''Li'' embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. Confucius includes in his discussions of ''li'' such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. [[Xunzi (philosopher)|Xunzi]] cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation{{nbsp}}... rice and millet, fish and meat{{nbsp}}... the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes{{nbsp}}... spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of the fabric of ''li''. Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of ''li''. Some Confucians proposed that all human beings may pursue perfection by learning and practising ''li''. Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on ''li'' and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. ====Loyalty==== Loyalty ({{zhi|c=忠|p=zhōng}}) is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because the most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service. Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. As Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty)."<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/analects/ba-yi |title=The Analects |chapter= Ba Yi |via=Chinese Text Project}}</ref> Similarly, [[Mencius]] also said that "when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy."<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/mengzi/li-lou-ii |title=Mengzi |chapter= Li Lou II |via=Chinese Text Project}}</ref> Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. If the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/mengzi/liang-hui-wang-ii/zh?en=on |chapter=Liang Hui Wang xia |via=中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org)|title=孟子 |language=zh,en |script-chapter=zh:梁惠王下 }}</ref> A good Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://ctext.org/analects/xian-wen/zh?en=on |chapter=Xian Wen |via=中國哲學書電子化計劃 (ctext.org) |title=論語 |language=zh,en |script-chapter=zh:憲問}}</ref> At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will help him govern the realm better. In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Like filial piety, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes in China. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action.<ref>Example: [[Hai Rui]] in the Ming dynasty, {{ill|Yuan Chang|zh|袁昶}} in the Qing, and so forth.</ref> During the Ming-Qing era, prominent Confucians such as [[Wang Yangming]] promoted individuality and independent thinking as a counterweight to subservience to authority.<ref>Wang Yangming, Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-Ming, Wing-tsit Chan tran. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 159.</ref> The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power in check.<ref>William Theodore De Bary, Waiting for the Dawn: A Plan for the Prince (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 91–110.</ref> Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another. This may be true especially in times of social chaos, such as during the period of the [[Transition from Ming to Qing|Ming-Qing transition]].<ref>See the discussion in {{lang|zh-hant|何冠彪}} He Guanbiao, {{lang|zh-hant|生與死 : 明季士大夫的抉擇}} (Taipei: Lianjing Chuban Shiye Gongsi, 1997).</ref> ====Filial piety==== [[File:尝粪心忧.JPG|thumb|Fourteenth of ''[[The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars]]'']] {{Main|Filial piety}} In Confucian philosophy, {{zht|c=孝|p=xiào|tr=filial piety}} is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: father–son, elder–junior and male–female.{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|p=146}} The Confucian classic ''[[Classic of Filial Piety|Xiaojing]]'' ("Book of Piety"), thought to be written during the Qin or Han dynasties, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of ''xiao''. The book, a conversation between Confucius and his disciple [[Zeng Shen]], is about how to set up a good society using the principle of ''xiao''.<ref name="Chang">{{Cite book |last1=Wonsuk Chang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UC1mvUKaU8C&pg=PA68 |title=Confucianism in Context: Classic Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, East Asia and Beyond |last2=Leah Kalmanson |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4384-3191-8 |page=68}}</ref> In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain the material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly. display courtesy; ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers; wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness, for blindly following the parents' wishes is not considered to be ''xiao''; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out [[sacrifice]]s after their death. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. One of the most famous collections of such stories is "[[The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars]]". These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers.<ref>Baker, Hugh D.R. ''Chinese Family and Kinship''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979. p. 98</ref> ===Relationships=== Social harmony results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the natural order, and playing his or her part well. Reciprocity or responsibility (''renqing'') extends beyond filial piety and involves the entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers.{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|p=146}} This is shown in the story where [[Duke Jing of Qi]] asks Confucius about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony: {{Poem quote |text={{lang|zh-hant|齊景公問政於孔子。孔子對曰:君君,臣臣,父父,子子。| size=115% }} The [[Duke Jing of Qi|duke Jing, of Qi]], asked Confucius about government. Confucius replied, "There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son." |source=''Analects'' 12.11 (Legge translation). }} Particular duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. The same is true with the husband and wife relationship where the husband needs to show benevolence towards his wife and the wife needs to respect the husband in return. This theme of mutuality still exists in East Asian cultures even to this day. The Five Bonds are: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend. Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties are also extended to the dead, where the living stand as sons to their deceased family. The only relationship where respect for elders is not stressed was the friend to friend relationship, where mutual equal respect is emphasised instead. All these duties take the practical form of prescribed rituals, for instance wedding and death rituals.{{sfnb|Feuchtwang|2016|p=146}} ===''Junzi''=== {{Main|Junzi}} The ''junzi'' ('lord's son') is a [[Chinese philosophy|Chinese philosophical]] term often translated as "[[gentleman]]" or "superior person"<ref>Sometimes "exemplary person." Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont, Jr., ''The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation''. Paul Goldin translates it "noble man" in an attempt to capture both its early political and later moral meaning. Cf. "[http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/kurtis.hagen/keyterms_junzi.html Confucian Key Terms: Junzi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520073016/http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/kurtis.hagen/keyterms_junzi.html |date=20 May 2014 }}."</ref> and employed by [[Confucius]] in the ''Analects'' to describe the ideal man. In Confucianism, the sage or wise is the ideal personality; however, it is very hard to become one of them. Confucius created the model of ''junzi'', gentleman, which may be achieved by any individual. Later, [[Zhu Xi]] defined ''junzi'' as second only to the sage. There are many characteristics of the ''junzi'': he may live in poverty, he does more and speaks less, he is loyal, obedient and knowledgeable. The ''junzi'' disciplines himself. ''Ren'' is fundamental to become a ''junzi''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yang Tianshi (杨天石) |date=2005 |title=君子 – 儒学的理想人格 |url=http://jds.cass.cn/Item/1390.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418015158/http://jds.cass.cn/Item/1390.aspx |archive-date=18 April 2015 |language=zh}}</ref> As the potential leader of a nation, a son of the ruler is raised to have a superior ethical and moral position while gaining inner peace through his virtue. To Confucius, the ''junzi'' sustained the functions of government and social stratification through his ethical values. Despite its literal meaning, any righteous man willing to improve himself may become a ''junzi''. In contrast to the ''junzi'', the ''xiaoren'' ({{lang-zh|labels=no|c=小人|p=xiăorén}}, "small or petty person") does not grasp the value of virtues and seeks only immediate gains. The petty person is [[egotistic]] and does not consider the consequences of his action in the overall scheme of things. Should the ruler be surrounded by ''xiaoren'' as opposed to ''junzi'', his governance and his people will suffer due to their small-mindness. Examples of such ''xiaoren'' individuals may range from those who continually indulge in sensual and emotional pleasures all day to the politician who is interested merely in power and fame; neither sincerely aims for the long-term benefit of others. The ''junzi'' enforces his rule over his subjects by acting virtuously himself. It is thought that his pure virtue would lead others to follow his example. The ultimate goal is that the government behaves much like a family, the ''junzi'' being a beacon of filial piety. ===Rectification of names=== [[File:Tablet of Confucius.jpg|thumb|Priest paying homage to Confucius's tablet, {{circa|1900}}]] {{Main|Rectification of names}} Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality. Fundamentally, then, social disorder may stem from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution to this was the {{zht|c=正名|p=zhèngmíng|tr=rectification of names}}. He gave an explanation of this concept to one of his disciples: <blockquote> Zi-lu said, "The vassal of Wei has been waiting for you, in order with you to administer the government. What will you consider the first thing to be done?"<br /> The Master replied, "What is necessary to rectify names."<br /> "So! indeed!" said Zi-lu. "You are wide off the mark! Why must there be such rectification?"<br /> The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, Yu! The superior man [Junzi] cannot care about the everything, just as he cannot go to check all himself!<br /> If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things.<br /> If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success.<br /> When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music do not flourish.<br /> When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded.<br /> When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot.<br /> Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect."<br /> (''Analects'' XIII, 3, tr. Legge) </blockquote> ''[[Xunzi (book)|Xunzi]]'' chapter (22) "On the Rectification of Names" claims the ancient sage-kings chose names ({{zh|labels=no|c=名|p=míng}}) that directly corresponded with actualities ({{zh|labels=no|c=實|p=shí}}), but later generations confused terminology, coined new nomenclature, and thus could no longer distinguish right from wrong. Since [[harmonious society|social harmony]] is of utmost importance, without the proper rectification of names, society would essentially crumble and "undertakings [would] not [be] completed."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Rodney L. |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Confucianism |last2=Choy |first2=Howard Y.F. |publisher=Rosen Publishing Group |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8239-4079-0 |location=New York |pages=48–50}}.</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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