Communication

==Human==
There are many forms of [[human communication]]. A central distinction is whether language is used, as in the contrast between verbal and non-verbal communication. A further distinction concerns whether one communicates with others or with oneself, as in the contrast between [[interpersonal communication|interpersonal]] and [[intrapersonal communication]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=58}} | {{harvnb|Burton|Dimbleby|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4XGKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 126]}} | {{harvnb|Sinding|Waldstrom|2014|p=153}} }}</ref> Forms of human communication are also categorized by their channel or the medium used to transmit messages.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 44]|loc=channels}} | {{harvnb|Fiske|2011|pp=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 17–18]|loc=1. Communication theory}} }}</ref> The field studying human communication is known as anthroposemiotics.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Beynon-Davies|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnaGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 52]}} | {{harvnb|Bussmann|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=O0-9Iw0Qh6EC&pg=PA65 65–66]}} }}</ref>

=== Verbal ===
{{Main|Linguistics}}
Verbal communication is the exchange of messages in [[Linguistics|linguistic]] form, i.e., by means of [[language]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=448}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2000|pp=58–59}} }}</ref> In colloquial usage, verbal communication is sometimes restricted to [[oral communication]] and may exclude writing and sign language. However, in academic discourse, the term is usually used in a wider sense, encompassing any form of linguistic communication, whether through speech, writing, or gestures.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=448}} | {{harvnb|Kyle|Kyle|Woll|Pullen|1988|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gcy4MhmLhdkC&pg=PA59 59]}} | {{harvnb|Butterfield|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VAJVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2–3]}} }}</ref> Some of the challenges in distinguishing verbal from non-verbal communication come from the difficulties in defining what exactly ''language'' means. Language is usually understood as a conventional system of [[symbol]]s and rules used for communication. Such systems are based on a set of simple units of meaning that can be combined to express more complex ideas. The rules for combining the units into compound expressions are called [[grammar]]. [[Word]]s are combined to form [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentences]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lyons|1981|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8Wg57a3DdYYC 3, 6]}} | {{harvnb|Harley|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIsMKQEACAAJ 5–6]}} }}</ref>

One hallmark of human language, in contrast to animal communication, lies in its complexity and expressive power. Human language can be used to refer not just to [[concrete object]]s in the here-and-now but also to spatially and temporally distant objects and to [[Abstract object|abstract ideas]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|pp=11, 13–14}} | {{harvnb|Kiggins|Comins|Gentner|2013}} }}</ref> Humans have a natural tendency to [[Critical period hypothesis|acquire their native language in childhood]]. They are also able to learn other languages later in life as [[second language]]s. However, this process is less intuitive and often does not result in the same level of [[linguistic competence]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meisel|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3ryG0_W4qxcC 1]}} | {{harvnb|Montrul|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nIRgMn83Rr8C&pg=PA20 20]}} }}</ref> The academic discipline studying language is called ''linguistics''. Its subfields include [[semantics]] (the study of meaning), [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (the study of word formation), [[syntax]] (the study of sentence structure), [[pragmatics]] (the study of language use), and [[phonetics]] (the study of basic sounds).<ref>{{harvnb|Harley|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bIsMKQEACAAJ 5–6]}}</ref>

A central contrast among languages is between [[Natural language|natural]] and artificial or [[constructed language]]s. Natural languages, like [[English language|English]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Japanese language|Japanese]], developed naturally and for the most part unplanned in the course of history. Artificial languages, like [[Esperanto]], [[Quenya]], [[C++]], and the language of [[first-order logic]], are purposefully designed from the ground up.<ref>{{harvnb|Thomason|2006|pp=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/artificial-and-natural-languages 342–345]|loc=Artificial And Natural Languages}}</ref> Most everyday verbal communication happens using natural languages. Central forms of verbal communication are speech and writing together with their counterparts of listening and reading.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Champoux|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Hq3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA327 327–328]}} | {{harvnb|Berlo|1960|pp=41–42}} }}</ref> Spoken languages use sounds to produce [[sign]]s and transmit meaning while for writing, the signs are physically inscribed on a surface.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Champoux|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Hq3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA327 327–328]}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2009|p=306}} | {{harvnb|Kyle|Kyle|Woll|Pullen|1988|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gcy4MhmLhdkC&pg=PA59 59]}} }}</ref> [[Sign languages]], like [[American Sign Language]] and [[Nicaraguan Sign Language]], are another form of verbal communication. They rely on visual means, mostly by using gestures with hands and arms, to form sentences and convey meaning.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Champoux|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Hq3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA327 327–328]}} | {{harvnb|Kyle|Kyle|Woll|Pullen|1988|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gcy4MhmLhdkC&pg=PA59 59]}} }}</ref>

Verbal communication serves various functions. One key function is to exchange information, i.e. an attempt by the speaker to make the audience aware of something, usually of an external event. But language can also be used to express the speaker's feelings and attitudes. A closely related role is to establish and maintain social relations with other people. Verbal communication is also utilized to coordinate one's behavior with others and influence them. In some cases, language is not employed for an external purpose but only for [[entertainment]] or personal enjoyment.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Danesi|2000|pp=58–59}} | {{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=6}} | {{harvnb|Berlo|1960|pp=7–8}} }}</ref> Verbal communication further helps individuals [[conceptualize]] the world around them and themselves. This affects how perceptions of external events are interpreted, how things are categorized, and how ideas are organized and related to each other.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|ISU staff|2016|loc=[http://kell.indstate.edu/public-comm-intro/chapter/3-4-functions-of-verbal-communication/ 3.4: Functions of Verbal Communication]}} | {{harvnb|Nuyts|Pederson|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=k_ZqqaYrftAC&pg=PA1 1]}} }}</ref>

=== Non-verbal ===
{{Main|Non-verbal communication}}
[[File:Hermandad - friendship.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of a handshake|[[Handshake|Shaking hands]] is one form of non-verbal communication.]]
Non-verbal communication is the exchange of information through non-linguistic modes, like facial expressions, [[gesture]]s, and [[Human position|postures]].<ref>{{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=492}}</ref> However, not every form of non-verbal behavior constitutes non-verbal communication. Some theorists, like [[Judee K. Burgoon|Judee Burgoon]], hold that it depends on the existence of a socially shared coding system that is used to interpret the meaning of non-verbal behavior.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}}</ref> Non-verbal communication has many functions. It frequently contains information about emotions, attitudes, personality, interpersonal relations, and private thoughts.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=107}} | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=297}} }}</ref>

Non-verbal communication often happens unintentionally and unconsciously, like [[sweating]] or [[blushing]], but there are also conscious intentional forms, like shaking hands or [[Thumb signal|raising a thumb]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=297}} | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=493}} }}</ref> It often happens simultaneously with verbal communication and helps optimize the exchange through emphasis and illustration or by adding additional information. Non-verbal cues can clarify the intent behind a verbal message.<ref>{{harvnb|Håkansson|Westander|2013|p=107}}</ref> Using multiple [[Modality (semiotics)|modalities]] of communication in this way usually makes communication more effective if the messages of each modality are consistent.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=691}} | {{harvnb|Taylor|1962|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43093688 8–10]}} }}</ref> However, in some cases different modalities can contain conflicting messages. For example, a person may verbally agree with a statement but press their lips together, thereby indicating disagreement non-verbally.<ref>{{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=493}}</ref>

There are many forms of non-verbal communication. They include [[kinesics]], [[proxemics]], [[Haptic communication|haptics]], [[paralanguage]], [[chronemics]], and physical appearance.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|pp=692–694}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=297}} }}</ref> Kinesics studies the role of bodily behavior in conveying information. It is commonly referred to as [[body language]], even though it is, strictly speaking, not a language but rather non-verbal communication. It includes many forms, like gestures, postures, walking styles, and dance.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=297}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|pp=493–495}} }}</ref> Facial expressions, like laughing, smiling, and frowning, all belong to kinesics and are expressive and flexible forms of communication.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=693}}</ref> Oculesics is another subcategory of kinesics in regard to the eyes. It covers questions like how eye contact, gaze, blink rate, and pupil dilation form part of communication.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=692}}</ref> Some kinesic patterns are inborn and involuntary, like blinking, while others are learned and voluntary, like giving a [[military salute]].<ref>{{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=493}}</ref>

Proxemics studies how personal space is used in communication. The distance between the speakers reflects their degree of familiarity and intimacy with each other as well as their social status.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=692}}</ref> Haptics examines how information is conveyed using touching behavior, like handshakes, holding hands, kissing, or slapping. Meanings linked to haptics include care, concern, anger, and violence. For instance, handshaking is often seen as a symbol of equality and fairness, while refusing to shake hands can indicate aggressiveness. Kissing is another form often used to show affection and erotic closeness.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=692}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=494}} }}</ref>

Paralanguage, also known as vocalics, encompasses non-verbal elements in speech that convey information. Paralanguage is often used to express the feelings and emotions that the speaker has but does not explicitly stated in the verbal part of the message. It is not concerned with the words used but with how they are expressed. This includes elements like articulation, lip control, rhythm, intensity, pitch, fluency, and loudness.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=694}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=297}} | {{harvnb|Papa|Daniels|Spiker|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=00m0QPQ07H0C&pg=PA27 27]}} }}</ref> For example, saying something loudly and in a high pitch conveys a different meaning on the non-verbal level than whispering the same words. Paralanguage is mainly concerned with spoken language but also includes aspects of written language, like the use of colors and fonts as well as spatial arrangement in paragraphs and tables.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=310}} | {{harvnb|Papa|Daniels|Spiker|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=00m0QPQ07H0C&pg=PA27 27]}} }}</ref> Non-linguistic sounds may also convey information; [[crying]] indicates that an infant is distressed, and [[babbling]] conveys information about infant health and well-being.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McCormack|McLeod|Harrison|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pdAoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}} | {{harvnb|Bornstein|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nyZpbi4IiSoC&pg=PA151 151]}} }}</ref>

Chronemics concerns the use of time, such as what messages are sent by being on time versus late for a meeting.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|pp=692–693}}</ref> The physical appearance of the communicator, such as height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, clothing, tattooing, and piercing, also carries information.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|pp=693–694}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|p=492}} }}</ref> Appearance is an important factor for first impressions but is more limited as a mode of communication since it is less changeable.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|pp=693–694}}</ref> Some forms of non-verbal communication happen using such artifacts as drums, smoke, batons, traffic lights, and flags.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Givens|White|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UhgoEAAAQBAJ 28, 55]}} | {{harvnb|Chan|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CmXIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 180]}} }}</ref>

Non-verbal communication can also happen through visual [[Media (communication)|media]] like [[painting]]s and [[drawing]]s. They can express what a person or an object looks like and can also convey other ideas and emotions. In some cases, this type of non-verbal communication is used in combination with verbal communication, for example, when [[diagram]]s or [[map]]s employ labels to include additional linguistic information.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Krémer|Quijano|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6QVDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT121 121–122]}} | {{harvnb|du Plessis|Lowe|Smith|Sykes|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ympNWY4wajAC&pg=PA124 124–216]}} | {{harvnb|Ongaro|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uljwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA216 216]}} | {{harvnb|Jeanrond|1991|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CzWxCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7–8]}} }}</ref>

Traditionally, most research focused on verbal communication. However, this paradigm began to shift in the 1950s when research interest in non-verbal communication increased and emphasized its influence.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Clough|Duff|2020|p=323}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 244]|loc=Logocentrism}} | {{harvnb|Mills|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ouHnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT132 132–133]}} }}</ref> For example, many judgments about the nature and behavior of other people are based on non-verbal cues.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}}</ref> It is further present in almost every communicative act to some extent and certain parts of it are universally understood.<ref>{{harvnb|Burgoon|Manusov|Guerrero|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JqVYCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3–4]}}</ref> These considerations have prompted some communication theorists, like [[Ray Birdwhistell]], to claim that the majority of ideas and information is conveyed this way.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013a|pp=492–493}} | {{harvnb|Giri|2009|pp=690–961}} }}</ref> It has also been suggested that human communication is at its core non-verbal and that words can only acquire meaning because of non-verbal communication.<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=691}}</ref> The earliest forms of human communication, such as crying and babbling, are non-verbal.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McCormack|McLeod|Harrison|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pdAoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}} | {{harvnb|Bornstein|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nyZpbi4IiSoC&pg=PA151 151]}} }}</ref> Some basic forms of communication happen even before birth between mother and embryo and include information about nutrition and emotions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bowman|Arany|Wolfgang|2021|pp=1455–1456}} | {{harvnb|Bornstein|Suwalsky|Breakstone|2012|pp=113–116}} }}</ref> Non-verbal communication is studied in various fields besides communication studies, like linguistics, [[semiotics]], [[anthropology]], and [[social psychology]].<ref>{{harvnb|Giri|2009|p=690}}</ref>

=== Interpersonal ===
{{main|Interpersonal communication}}
[[File:Kathy Matayoshi and Mazie Hirono.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of two women talking|Kathy Matayoshi and [[Mazie Hirono]] conversing in the White House, an example of interpersonal communication]]
Interpersonal communication is communication between distinct people. Its typical form is [[dyadic communication]], i.e. between two people, but it can also refer to [[Group communication|communication within groups]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=221}} | {{harvnb|UMN staff|2016|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-1-communication-history-and-forms/ 1.1 Communication: History and Forms]}} | {{harvnb|Barnlund|2013|pp=52–53}} }}</ref> It can be planned or unplanned and occurs in many forms, like when greeting someone, during salary negotiations, or when making a phone call.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|UMN staff|2016|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-1-communication-history-and-forms/ 1.1 Communication: History and Forms]}} | {{harvnb|Ezhilarasu|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfbsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA178 178]}} }}</ref> Some communication theorists, like Virginia M. McDermott, understand interpersonal communication as a [[fuzzy concept]] that manifests in degrees.<ref>{{harvnb|McDermott|2009|p=547}}</ref> In this view, an exchange varies in how interpersonal it is based on several factors. It depends on how many people are present, and whether it happens face-to-face rather than through telephone or email. A further factor concerns the relation between the communicators:<ref>{{harvnb|McDermott|2009|pp=547–548}}</ref> group communication and mass communication are less typical forms of interpersonal communication and some theorists treat them as distinct types.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|UMN staff|2016|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-1-communication-history-and-forms/ 1.1 Communication: History and Forms]}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013|p=168}} | {{harvnb|McDermott|2009|pp=547–548}} }}</ref>

Interpersonal communication can be synchronous or asynchronous. For asynchronous communication, the parties take turns in sending and receiving messages. This occurs when exchanging letters or emails. For synchronous communication, both parties send messages at the same time.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=221}}</ref> This happens when one person is talking while the other person sends non-verbal messages in response signaling whether they agree with what is being said.<ref>{{harvnb|UMN staff|2016a|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}</ref> Some communication theorists, like Sarah Trenholm and Arthur Jensen, distinguish between content messages and relational messages. Content messages express the speaker's feelings toward the topic of discussion. Relational messages, on the other hand, demonstrate the speaker's feelings toward their relation with the other participants.<ref>{{harvnb|Trenholm|Jensen|2013|pp=36, 361}}</ref>

Various theories of the function of interpersonal communication have been proposed. Some focus on how it helps people make sense of their world and create society. Others hold that its primary purpose is to understand why other people act the way they do and to adjust one's behavior accordingly.<ref>{{harvnb|McDermott|2009|pp=548–549}}</ref> A closely related approach is to focus on information and see interpersonal communication as an attempt to reduce uncertainty about others and external events.<ref>{{harvnb|McDermott|2009|p=549}}</ref> Other explanations understand it in terms of the [[needs]] it satisfies. This includes the needs of belonging somewhere, being included, being liked, maintaining relationships, and influencing the behavior of others.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McDermott|2009|p=549}} | {{harvnb|Gamble|Gamble|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bUdeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 14–16]}} }}</ref> On a practical level, interpersonal communication is used to coordinate one's actions with the actions of others to get things done.<ref>{{harvnb|McDermott|2009|p=546}}</ref> Research on interpersonal communication includes topics like how people build, maintain, and dissolve relationships through communication. Other questions are why people choose one message rather than another and what effects these messages have on the communicators and their relation. A further topic is how to predict whether two people would like each other.<ref>{{harvnb|McDermott|2009|pp=546–547}}</ref>

=== Intrapersonal ===
{{main|Intrapersonal communication}}
[[File:Helleu - Daydream.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of a woman daydreaming|[[Paul César Helleu]]'s 1901 painting, ''Rêverie'' (Daydream) featuring [[Alice Guérin]]. Daydreaming is a form of intrapersonal communication.]]
Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ezhilarasu|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfbsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA178 178]}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=225}} | {{harvnb|Lantolf|2009|p=566}} }}</ref> In some cases this manifests externally, like when engaged in a [[monologue]], taking notes, highlighting a passage, and writing a diary or a shopping list. But many forms of intrapersonal communication happen internally in the form of an inner exchange with oneself, like when thinking about something or [[daydreaming]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=225}} | {{harvnb|Honeycutt|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9pbnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT317 317]}} }}</ref> Closely related to intrapersonal communication is communication that takes place within an organism below the personal level, such as exchange of information between organs or cells.<ref>{{harvnb|Vocate|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fZOk5Fpuj54C&pg=PA196 196]}}</ref>

Intrapersonal communication can be triggered by internal and external stimuli. It may happen in the form of articulating a phrase before expressing it externally. Other forms are to make plans for the future and to attempt to process emotions to calm oneself down in stressful situations.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|UMN staff|2016|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-1-communication-history-and-forms/ 1.1 Communication: History and Forms]}} | {{harvnb|Barnlund|2013|pp=47–52}} }}</ref> It can help regulate one's own mental activity and outward behavior as well as internalize cultural norms and ways of thinking.<ref>{{harvnb|Lantolf|2009|pp=567–568}}</ref> External forms of intrapersonal communication can aid one's memory. This happens, for example, when making a shopping list. Another use is to unravel difficult problems, as when solving a complex mathematical equation line by line. New knowledge can also be internalized this way, like when repeating new vocabulary to oneself. Because of these functions, intrapersonal communication can be understood as "an exceptionally powerful and pervasive tool for thinking."<ref>{{harvnb|Lantolf|2009|pp=568–569}}</ref>

Based on its role in [[Self-control|self-regulation]], some theorists have suggested that intrapersonal communication is more basic than interpersonal communication. Young children sometimes use [[Private speech|egocentric speech]] while playing in an attempt to direct their own behavior. In this view, interpersonal communication only develops later when the child moves from their early egocentric perspective to a more social perspective.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lantolf|2009|p=567}} | {{harvnb|Kreps|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FrbGuo2mxCMC&pg=PA239 239]}} }}</ref> A different explanation holds that interpersonal communication is more basic since it is first used by parents to regulate what their child does. Once the child has learned this, they can apply the same technique to themselves to get more control over their own behavior.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lantolf|2009|pp=567–568}} | {{harvnb|Vocate|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fZOk5Fpuj54C&pg=PA14 14]}} }}</ref>

=== Channels ===
For communication to be successful, the message has to travel from the sender to the receiver. The ''channel'' is the way this is accomplished. It is not concerned with the meaning of the message but only with the technical means of how the meaning is conveyed.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 44]|loc=channels}} | {{harvnb|Fiske|2011|pp=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 17–18]|loc=1. Communication theory}} }}</ref> Channels are often understood in terms of the [[senses]] used to perceive the message, i.e. hearing, seeing, smelling, touching, and tasting.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 44]|loc=channels}} | {{harvnb|Berlo|1960|pp=63–9}} | {{harvnb|Gill|Adams|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhXZU39BVJYC&pg=PA35 35–36]}} }}</ref> But in the widest sense, channels encompass any form of transmission, including technological means like books, cables, radio waves, telephones, or television.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 44]|loc=channels}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2013|p=168}} }}</ref> Naturally transmitted messages usually fade rapidly whereas some messages using artificial channels have a much longer lifespan, as in the case of books or sculptures.<ref>{{harvnb|Danesi|2013|p=168}}</ref>

The physical characteristics of a channel have an impact on the code and cues that can be used to express information. For example, typical telephone calls are restricted to the use of verbal language and paralanguage but exclude facial expressions. It is often possible to translate messages from one code into another to make them available to a different channel. An example is writing down a spoken message or expressing it using sign language.<ref>{{harvnb|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 20]}}</ref>

The transmission of information can occur through multiple channels at once. For example, face-to-face communication often combines the auditory channel to convey verbal information with the visual channel to transmit non-verbal information using gestures and facial expressions. Employing multiple channels can enhance the effectiveness of communication by helping the receiver better understand the subject matter.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Taylor|1962|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43093688 8–10]}} | {{harvnb|Turkington|Harris|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ePOh9jzjZqQC&pg=PA140 140]}} | {{harvnb|von Kriegstein|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pRV1XsOyAc8C&pg=PA683 683]}} }}</ref> The choice of channels often matters since the receiver's ability to understand may vary depending on the chosen channel. For instance, a teacher may decide to present some information orally and other information visually, depending on the content and the student's preferred learning style.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berlo|1960|p=67}} | {{harvnb|Turkington|Harris|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ePOh9jzjZqQC&pg=PA140 140]}} }}</ref>

=== Communicative competence ===
{{Main|Communicative competence}}
Communicative competence is the ability to communicate effectively or to choose the appropriate communicative behavior in a given situation.<ref>{{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|pp=20–21}}</ref> It concerns what to say, when to say it, and how to say it.<ref>{{harvnb|McArthur|McArthur|McArthur|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC&pg=PT232 232–233]}}</ref> It further includes the ability to receive and understand messages.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=25}}</ref> [[Competence (human resources)|Competence]] is often contrasted with [[Linguistic performance|performance]] since competence can be present even if it is not exercised, while performance consists in the realization of this competence.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Genesee|1984|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=U-05JSBtZF8C&pg=PA139 139]}} | {{harvnb|Peterwagner|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=87BOMKSj1kcC&pg=PA9 9]}} | {{harvnb|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3029]|loc=Models of communication}} }}</ref> However, some theorists reject a stark contrast and hold that performance is the observable part and is used to infer competence in relation to future performances.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|pp=17–18}}</ref>

Two central components of communicative competence are [[effectiveness]] and appropriateness.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|pp=20–21}} | {{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=241}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|pp=18, 25}} }}</ref> Effectiveness is the degree to which the speaker achieves their desired outcomes or the degree to which preferred alternatives are realized.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|p=23}} | {{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=241}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=25}} }}</ref> This means that whether a communicative behavior is effective does not just depend on the actual outcome but also on the speaker's intention, i.e. whether this outcome was what they intended to achieve. Because of this, some theorists additionally require that the speaker be able to give an explanation of why they engaged in one behavior rather than another.<ref>{{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|p=23}}</ref> Effectiveness is closely related to [[efficiency]], the difference being that effectiveness is about achieving goals while efficiency is about using few resources (such as time, effort, and money) in the process.<ref>{{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=241}}</ref>

Appropriateness means that the communicative behavior meets social standards and expectations.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|p=23}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|pp=18, 25}} }}</ref> Communication theorist Brian H. Spitzberg defines it as "the perceived legitimacy or acceptability of behavior or enactments in a given context".<ref>{{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=241}}</ref> This means that the speaker is aware of the social and cultural context in order to adapt and express the message in a way that is considered acceptable in the given situation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|p=23}} | {{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=238}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=18}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2009|p=70}} }}</ref> For example, to bid farewell to their teacher, a student may use the expression "Goodbye, sir" but not the expression "I gotta split, man", which they may use when talking to a peer.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Danesi|2000|pp=59–60}} | {{harvnb|McArthur|McArthur|McArthur|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC&pg=PT232 232–233]}} }}</ref> To be both effective and appropriate means to achieve one's preferred outcomes in a way that follows social standards and expectations.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=26}}</ref> Some definitions of communicative competence put their main emphasis on either effectiveness or appropriateness while others combine both features.<ref>{{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|pp=20–22}}</ref>

Many additional components of communicative competence have been suggested, such as [[empathy]], control, flexibility, sensitivity, and knowledge.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|p=24}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|pp=19, 24}} }}</ref> It is often discussed in terms of the individual skills employed in the process, i.e. the specific behavioral components that make up communicative competence.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=24}} | {{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=242}} }}</ref> Message production skills include reading and writing. They are correlated with the reception skills of listening and reading.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=25}} | {{harvnb|Berlo|1960|pp=41–42}} }}</ref> There are both verbal and non-verbal communication skills.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=25}}</ref> For example, verbal communication skills involve the proper understanding of a language, including its [[phonology]], [[orthography]], syntax, [[lexicon]], and semantics.<ref>{{harvnb|McArthur|McArthur|McArthur|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC&pg=PT232 232–233]}}</ref>

Many aspects of human life depend on successful communication, from ensuring basic necessities of survival to building and maintaining relationships.<ref>{{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|pp=238–239}}</ref> Communicative competence is a key factor regarding whether a person is able to reach their goals in social life, like having a successful career and finding a suitable spouse.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=15}}</ref> Because of this, it can have a large impact on the individual's [[well-being]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|pp=238–239}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=24}} }}</ref> The lack of communicative competence can cause problems both on the individual and the societal level, including professional, academic, and health problems.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=24}}</ref>

Barriers to effective communication can distort the message. They may result in failed communication and cause undesirable effects. This can happen if the message is poorly expressed because it uses terms with which the receiver is not familiar, or because it is not relevant to the receiver's needs, or because it contains too little or too much information. Distraction, [[selective perception]], and lack of attention to feedback may also be responsible.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Buchanan|Huczynski|2017|pp=218–219}} | {{harvnb|Fielding|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z_vIcp9gaEC&pg=PA20 20–21]}} }}</ref> Noise is another negative factor. It concerns influences that interfere with the message on its way to the receiver and distort it.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|UMN staff|2016a|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 296]|loc=noise}} }}</ref> Crackling sounds during a telephone call are one form of noise. [[Ambiguity|Ambiguous expressions]] can also inhibit effective communication and make it necessary to [[disambiguate]] between possible interpretations to discern the sender's intention.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|van Trijp|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oqhJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA289 289–290]}} | {{harvnb|Winner|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YBw0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29 29]}} }}</ref> These interpretations depend also on the [[Cross-cultural communication|cultural background of the participants]]. Significant cultural differences constitute an additional obstacle and make it more likely that messages are misinterpreted.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blythe|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rPgQRbBLdYgC&pg=188 188]}} | {{harvnb|Meng|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b0HWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120]}} | {{harvnb|Rao|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fBHi4hEuDgYC 48]}} }}</ref>