Augustus

== Rise to power ==

=== Heir to Caesar ===
[[File:Vincenzo Camuccini - La morte di Cesare.jpg|thumb|''The Death of Caesar'' by [[Vincenzo Camuccini]]. On 15 March 44&nbsp;BC, Octavian's adoptive father Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy led by [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]]. [[Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna]], Rome.]]
Octavian was studying and undergoing military training in [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]], [[Illyria]], when [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar was assassinated]] on the [[Ides of March]] (15 March) 44&nbsp;BC. He rejected the advice of some army officers to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia and sailed to [[Roman Italy|Italy]] to ascertain whether he had any potential political fortunes or security.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=9}} Caesar had no living legitimate children under Roman law{{Efn|His daughter [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia]] had died in 54&nbsp;BC.; his son [[Caesarion]] by Cleopatra was not recognized by Roman law and was not mentioned in his will.<ref name=Suetonius_Julius />}} and so had [[Adoption in ancient Rome|adopted]] Octavian, his grand-nephew, in his will, making him his primary heir.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=15}} Mark Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours, though Suetonius describes Antony's accusation as [[Defamation|political slander]].<ref>[[The Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]], ''Augustus'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#68 68], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#71 71].</ref> This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents by accusing them of having an inappropriate sexual affair.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mihai Andrei |date=24 August 2018 |title=In ancient Rome, political discourse was sometimes like an internet fight |url=https://www.zmescience.com/science/history-science/rome-political-discourse-insults-24082018/ |access-date=7 May 2019 |website=ZME Science |language=en-US |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418141034/https://www.zmescience.com/science/history-science/rome-political-discourse-insults-24082018/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Weisberger |first1=Mindy |last2=September 2 |first2=Senior Writer {{!}} |last3=ET |first3=2018 08:11am |title=Think Politics Today Is Ugly? Politicians in Ancient Rome Were Insulting, Too |url=https://www.livescience.com/63473-insults-politics-ancient-rome.html |access-date=7 May 2019 |website=Live Science|date=2 September 2018 |archive-date=10 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510025811/https://www.livescience.com/63473-insults-politics-ancient-rome.html |url-status=live}}</ref> After landing at [[Lupiae]] near [[Brindisi|Brundisium]], Octavian learned the contents of Caesar's will, and only then did he decide to become Caesar's political heir as well as heir to two-thirds of his estate.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=14}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=9}}<ref>[[Appian]], ''Civil Wars'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/3*.html#9 3.9–11].</ref>

Upon his adoption, Octavian assumed his great-uncle's name Gaius Julius Caesar.<ref name=":1" /> Roman citizens adopted into a new family usually retained their old [[nomen gentilicium|nomen]] in [[cognomen]] form (e.g., ''Octavianus'' for one who had been an Octavius, ''Aemilianus'' for one who had been an Aemilius, etc.). However, though some of his contemporaries did,<ref>E.g., {{Cite book |last=Cicero |url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi057.perseus-lat1:16.14 |title=Letters to Atticus |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |pages=16:14 |access-date=8 December 2015 |archive-date=24 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224025904/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi057.perseus-lat1:16.14 |url-status=live}}</ref> there is no evidence that Octavian officially used the name ''Octavianus'', as it would have made his modest origins too obvious.{{Sfn|Mackay|2004|page=160}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=10}}{{Sfn|Southern|1998|pages=20–21}} Historians usually refer to the new Caesar as "Octavian" during the time between his adoption and his assumption of the name Augustus in 27&nbsp;BC in order to avoid confusing the dead dictator with his heir.{{Sfn|Southern|1998|page=21}}

Octavian could not rely on his limited funds to make a successful entry into the upper echelons of the Roman political hierarchy.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=9-10}} After a warm welcome by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium,{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=19}} Octavian demanded a portion of the funds that were allotted by Caesar for the intended war against the [[Parthian Empire]] in the Middle East.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=9–10}} This amounted to 700&nbsp;million [[sestertius|sesterces]] stored at Brundisium, the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=18}} A later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds took no action against Octavian since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against the Senate's arch enemy Mark Antony.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=19}} Octavian made another bold move in 44&nbsp;BC when, without official permission, he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent from Rome's [[Near East]]ern province<!--[[Asia (Roman province)]]?--> to Italy.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=10}}{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=18}}

Octavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar's veteran [[Legionary|legionaries]] and with troops designated for the Parthian war, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=9}}<ref>[[Appian]], ''Civil Wars'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/3*.html#11 3.11–12].</ref> On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and newly acquired funds attracted many, winning over Caesar's former veterans stationed in [[Campania]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=10}} By June, he had gathered an army of 3,000 loyal veterans, paying each a bonus of 500 [[denarius|denarii]].{{Sfn|Chisholm|Ferguson|1981|pages=24, 27}}{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=20}}

=== Growing tensions ===
[[File:Octave (13668015683).jpg|thumb|upright|A bust of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated {{circa|30&nbsp;BC}}. [[Capitoline Museums]], Rome]]
Arriving in Rome on 6 May 44 BC, Octavian found consul Mark Antony, Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins. They had been granted a general amnesty on 17 March, yet Antony had succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome with an inflammatory eulogy at Caesar's funeral, mounting public opinion against the assassins.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=10}}

Mark Antony was amassing political support, but Octavian still had the opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the faction supporting Caesar. Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he initially opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=11}} It is alleged that Antony refused to hand over the money due Octavian as Caesar's adopted heir, possibly on grounds that it would take time to disentangle it from state funds.<ref>{{harvnb|Rawson|1994|p=472|ps=, citing App. ''BCiv.'', 3.94.}}</ref> During the summer, Octavian won the support of Caesarian veterans and also made common cause with those senators – many of whom were themselves former Caesarians – who perceived Antony as a threat to the state. After an abortive attempt by the veterans to reconcile Octavian and Antony, Antony's bellicose edicts against Brutus and Cassius alienated him from the moderate Caesarians in the senate, who feared a renewed civil war.{{sfn|Rawson|1994|pp=474–476}} In September, [[Cicero|Marcus Tullius Cicero]] began to attack Antony in a [[Philippicae|series of speeches]] portraying him as a threat to the republican order.{{Sfn|Chisholm|Ferguson|1981|page=26}}{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=30}}

=== First conflict with Antony ===
With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end, Antony attempted to pass laws that would assign him the province of [[Cisalpine Gaul]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=11–12}}{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=21}} Octavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans, and on 28 November he won over two of Antony's legions with the enticing offer of monetary gain.{{Sfn|Syme|1939|pages=123–126}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=12}}{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=23}}

In the face of Octavian's large and capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in Rome and, to the relief of the Senate, he left Rome for Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on 1 January.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=23}} However, the province had earlier been assigned to [[Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus]], one of Caesar's assassins, who now refused to yield to Antony. Antony besieged him at [[Modena|Mutina]]{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=24}} and rejected the resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the fighting. The Senate had no army to enforce their resolutions. This provided an opportunity for Octavian, who already was known to have armed forces.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=12}} Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony's taunts about Octavian's lack of noble lineage and aping of Julius Caesar's name, stating "we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth."{{Sfn|Chisholm|Ferguson|1981|page=29}}

At the urging of Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on 1 January 43&nbsp;BC, yet he also was given the power to vote alongside the former consuls.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=13}}{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=23}} In addition, Octavian was granted ''[[imperium]] [[promagistrate|pro praetore]]'' (commanding power) which legalized his command of troops, sending him to relieve the siege along with [[Aulus Hirtius|Hirtius]] and [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus|Pansa]] (the consuls for 43&nbsp;BC). {{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=13}}{{Sfn|Syme|1939|page=167}} He assumed the ''[[fasces]]'' on 7 January,{{sfn|Fishwick|2004|p=250}} a date that he would later commemorate as the beginning of his public career.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=24}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=13}}{{Sfn|Gruen|2005|page=160}} Antony's forces were defeated at the battles of [[Battle of Forum Gallorum|Forum Gallorum]] (14 April) and [[Battle of Mutina|Mutina]] (21 April), forcing Antony to retreat to [[Gallia Narbonensis|Transalpine Gaul]]. Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies.{{Sfn|Syme|1939|pages=173–174}}{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=157}} These victories earned him his first acclamation as ''[[imperator]]'', a title reserved for victorious commanders.{{sfn|Fishwick|2004|p=250}}

The Senate heaped many more rewards on Decimus Brutus than on Octavian for defeating Antony, then attempted to give command of the consular legions to Decimus Brutus.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|pages=26–27}} In response, Octavian stayed in the [[Po Valley]] and refused to aid any further offensive against Antony.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=27}} In July, an embassy of [[centurion]]s sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded the consulship left vacant by Hirtius and Pansa{{Sfn|Chisholm|Ferguson|1981|pages=32–33}} and also that the decree should be rescinded which declared Antony a public enemy.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=27}} When this was refused, he marched on the city with eight legions.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=27}} He encountered no military opposition in Rome and on 19 August 43&nbsp;BC was elected consul with his relative [[Quintus Pedius (consul)|Quintus Pedius]] as co-consul.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=15}}{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=28}} Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance with [[Lepidus|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], another leading Caesarian.{{Sfn|Syme|1939|pages=176–186}}

=== Second Triumvirate ===

==== Proscriptions ====
[[File:Antony with Octavian aureus.jpg|thumb|300px|left|[[Aureus]] bearing the portraits of [[Mark Antony]] (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41&nbsp;BC to celebrate the establishment of the [[Second Triumvirate]]. Both sides bear the inscription "{{Smallcaps|{{abbr|III vir rpc|Triumvir Reipublicae Constituendae}}}}", meaning "One of Three Men for the regulation of the Republic". Caption: {{Smallcaps|{{abbr|m ant|Marcus Antonius}} {{abbr|imp|Imperator}} {{abbr|aug|Augur}}{{efn|"{{Smallcaps|aug}}" here refers to the religious office of [[augur]], not the title "augustus" created in 27 BC.<ref name="Sear"/>}} IIIvir rpc {{abbr|m barbat|Marcus Barbatius}} {{abbr|q p|Quaestor Praetor}}{{efn|[[List of Roman moneyers during the Republic|Marcus Barbatius]] was a moneyer.<ref name="Sear">{{Cite web |last=Sear |first=David R |title=Common Legend Abbreviations On Roman Coins |url=http://www.davidrsear.com/academy/roman_legends.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070730185143/http://www.davidrsear.com/academy/roman_legends.html |archive-date=30 July 2007 |access-date=24 August 2007}}</ref>}} / caesar {{abbr|imp|Imperator}} {{abbr|pont|Pontifex}} IIIvir rpc}}.]]

In a meeting near [[Bologna|Bononia]] in October 43&nbsp;BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the [[Second Triumvirate]]. Their powers were made official by the Senate on 27 November.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=16}} This explicit arrogation of special powers lasting five years was then legalised by law passed by the [[Plebeians|plebs]], unlike the unofficial [[First Triumvirate]] formed by [[Pompey]], Julius Caesar, and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=15}}{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=163}} The triumvirs then set in motion [[proscription]]s, in which between 130 and 300 senators{{Efn|[[Appian]] estimates that 300 senators were proscribed, while his earlier contemporary [[Livy]] asserted that only 130 senators had been proscribed.{{Sfn|Southern|1998|pages=52-53}}}} and 2,000 ''equites'' were branded as outlaws and deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=16}} This decree issued by the triumvirate was motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay the salaries of their troops for the upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins, [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]].{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=164}} Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Romans to capture those proscribed, while the assets and properties of those arrested were seized by the triumvirs.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=16}}

Contemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir was most responsible for the proscriptions and killing. However, the sources agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions to eliminate political enemies.{{Sfn|Scott|1933|pages=19–20}} Marcus Velleius Paterculus asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame for initiating them. [[Cassius Dio]] defended Octavian as trying to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had many more enemies to deal with.{{Sfn|Scott|1933|page=19}} This claim was rejected by Appian, who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies.{{Sfn|Scott|1933|page=20}} Suetonius said that Octavian was reluctant to proscribe officials but did pursue his enemies with more vigor than the other triumvirs.{{Sfn|Scott|1933|pages=19–20}} [[Plutarch]] described the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and family among Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed the proscription of his ally Cicero, Antony the proscription of his maternal uncle [[Lucius Julius Caesar (consul 64 BC)|Lucius Julius Caesar]] (the consul of 64 BC), and Lepidus his brother [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (consul 50 BC)|Paullus]].{{Sfn|Scott|1933|page=19}}

==== Battle of Philippi and division of territory ====
{{Further|Liberators' civil war}}
[[File:S0484.4.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[denarius]] minted {{circa}} 18&nbsp;BC. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: comet of eight rays with tail upward; DIVVS IVLIV[S] (DIVINE JULIUS).]]
On 1 January 42&nbsp;BC, the Senate posthumously recognized Julius Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state, ''divus Iulius''. Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing the fact that he was ''divi filius'', "Son of the Divine".{{Sfn|Syme|1939|page=202}} Antony and Octavian then sent twenty-eight legions by sea to face the armies of Brutus and Cassius, who had built their base of power in Greece.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=17}} After two [[Battle of Philippi|battles at Philippi]] in Macedonia in October 42, the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. Mark Antony later used the examples of these battles as a means to belittle Octavian, as both battles were decisively won with the use of Antony's forces. In addition to claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony branded Octavian as a coward for handing over his direct military control to [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] instead.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=17–18}}

After Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate. [[Gaul]] and the province of Hispania were placed in the hands of Octavian. Antony traveled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen [[Cleopatra]], the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's son [[Caesarion]]. Lepidus was left with the province of Africa, stymied by Antony, who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=18}}

Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle the tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign, whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens of thousands who had fought on the republican side with Brutus and Cassius could easily ally with a political opponent of Octavian if not appeased, and they also required land.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=18}} There was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland. Octavian chose the former.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=18–19}} There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected by the new settlements, with entire populations driven out or at least given partial evictions.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=19}}

==== Rebellion and marriage alliances ====

There was widespread dissatisfaction with Octavian over these settlements of his soldiers, and this encouraged many to rally at the side of [[Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)|Lucius Antonius]], who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate. Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from [[Claudia (wife of Octavian)|Claudia]], the daughter of [[Fulvia]] (Antony's wife) and her first husband [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]]. He returned Claudia to her mother, claiming that their marriage had never been consummated. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius, she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian however, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at [[Perusia]], where Octavian [[Perusine War|forced them into surrender]] in early 40&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=19}}
[[File:Domus-augusti-2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|left|Fresco paintings inside the [[House of Augustus]], his residence during his reign as emperor]]

Lucius and his army were spared because of his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to [[Sicyon]].{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=32}} Octavian showed no mercy, however, for the mass of allies loyal to Lucius. On 15 March, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=20}} [[Perusia]] also was pillaged and burned as a warning for others.{{Sfn|Rowell|1962|page=32}} This bloody event sullied Octavian's reputation and was criticized by many, such as Augustan poet [[Sextus Propertius]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=20}}

[[Sextus Pompey|Sextus Pompeius]], the son of Pompey and still a renegade general, following Julius Caesar's victory over his father, had established himself in [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]] as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=162}} Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius. Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance in 40&nbsp;BC when he married [[Scribonia (wife of Octavian)|Scribonia]], a sister (or daughter) of Pompeius's father-in-law [[Lucius Scribonius Libo (consul 34 BC)|Lucius Scribonius Libo]]. Scribonia gave birth to Octavian's only natural child, [[Julia the Elder|Julia]], the same day that he divorced her to marry [[Livia|Livia Drusilla]], little more than a year after their marriage.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=20}}

While in Egypt, Antony had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra and had fathered three children with her.{{Efn|These were [[Alexander Helios]], [[Cleopatra Selene II]], and [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]].}} Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40&nbsp;BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying siege to [[Brindisi|Brundisium]]. This new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony, however. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight because of their Caesarian cause, while the legions under their command followed suit. Meanwhile, in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Antony was ''en route'' to meet her. Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs to effect a reconciliation.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=21}}{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=19}}

In the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would remain in Africa, Antony in the East, Octavian in the West. The [[Italian Peninsula]] was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers, but in reality this provision was useless for Antony in the East. To further cement relations of alliance with Antony, Octavian gave his sister, [[Octavia the Younger|Octavia Minor]], in marriage to Antony in late 40&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=21}}

==== War with Sextus Pompeius ====
{{Further|Bellum Siculum}}
Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying shipments of grain through the Mediterranean Sea to the peninsula. Pompeius's own son was put in charge as naval commander in the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=19}} Pompeius's control over the sea prompted him to take on the name ''Neptuni filius'', "son of [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]]".{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=22}} A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39&nbsp;BC with the [[Pact of Misenum]]; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, [[Corsica]], Sicily, and the [[Peloponnese]], and ensured him a future position as consul for 35&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=19}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=22}}

The territorial agreement between the triumvirate and Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia on 17 January 38&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=23}} One of Pompeius's naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia to Octavian. Octavian lacked the resources to confront Pompeius alone, so an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension for another five-year period beginning in 37&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=163}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=24}}

[[File:Denarius Sextus Pompeius-Scilla.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[denarius]] of [[Sextus Pompeius]], minted for his victory over Octavian's fleet. Obverse: the place where he defeated Octavian, Pharus of [[Messina]] decorated with a statue of Neptune; before that galley adorned with aquila, sceptre & trident; MAG. PIVS IMP. ITER. Reverse, the monster [[Scylla]], her torso of dogs and fish tails, wielding a rudder as a club. Caption: PRAEF[ECTUS] CLAS[SIS] ET ORAE MARIT[IMAE] EX S. C.]]
In supporting Octavian, Antony expected to gain support for his own campaign against the [[Parthian Empire]], desiring to avenge Rome's [[Battle of Carrhae|defeat at Carrhae]] in 53&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=24}} In an agreement reached at [[Taranto|Tarentum]], Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius, while Octavian was to send 20,000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia. Octavian sent only a tenth of those promised, which Antony viewed as an intentional provocation.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=25}}

Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=25–26}} Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely destroyed on 3 September by General Agrippa at the naval [[battle of Naulochus]]. Sextus fled to the east with his remaining forces, where he was captured and executed in [[Miletus]] by one of Antony's generals the following year. As Lepidus and Octavian accepted the surrender of Pompeius's troops, Lepidus attempted to claim Sicily for himself, ordering Octavian to leave. Lepidus's troops deserted him, however, and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and were enticed by Octavian's promises of money.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=26}}

Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of ''[[pontifex maximus]]'' (head of the college of priests) but was ejected from the Triumvirate. His public career at an end, he effectively was exiled to a [[villa]] at [[Mount Circeo|Cape Circei]] in Italy.{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=164}}{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=26}} The Roman dominions were divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East. Octavian ensured Rome's citizens of their rights to property in order to maintain peace and stability in his portion of the empire. This time, he settled his discharged soldiers outside of Italy, while also returning 30,000 slaves to their former Roman owners—slaves who had fled to join Pompeius's army and navy.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=26–27}} Octavian had the Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister [[tribune of the plebs|tribunal]] [[Sovereign immunity|immunity]], or ''[[Sacrosanctity|sacrosanctitas]]'', in order to ensure his own safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=27–28}}

==== War with Antony and Cleopatra ====
{{Main|War of Actium}}[[File:Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema - The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra.jpg|thumb|''Anthony and Cleopatra'', by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]]]
[[File:Castro Battle of Actium.jpg|thumb|''The [[Battle of Actium]]'', by [[Laureys a Castro]], painted 1672, [[National Maritime Museum]], London]]
Meanwhile, Antony's campaign turned disastrous against Parthia, tarnishing his image as a leader, and the mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=29}} On the other hand, Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength; he already was engaged in a romantic affair with her, so he decided to send Octavia back to Rome.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=29–30}} Octavian used this to spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an "Oriental [[Intimate relationship|paramour]]".{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=30}} In 36&nbsp;BC, Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end and that he would step down as triumvir—if only Antony would do the same. Antony refused.{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=20}}

Roman troops captured the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] in 34&nbsp;BC, and Antony made his son [[Alexander Helios]] the ruler of Armenia. He also awarded the title "[[King of Kings|Queen of Kings]]" to Cleopatra, acts that Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=30}} Octavian became consul once again on 1 January 33&nbsp;BC, and he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's [[Donations of Alexandria|grants of titles and territories]] to his relatives and to his queen.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=31}}

The breach between Antony and Octavian prompted a large portion of the senators, as well as both of that year's consuls, to leave Rome and defect to Antony. However, Octavian received two key deserters from Antony in the autumn of 32&nbsp;BC: Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=32–34}} These defectors gave Octavian the information that he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations that he made against Antony.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=34}} Octavian forcibly entered the [[Temple of Vesta|temple of the Vestal Virgins]] and seized Antony's secret will, which he promptly publicized. The will would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule and designated [[Alexandria]] as the site for a tomb for him and his queen.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=34–35}}{{Sfn|Eder|2005|pages=21–22}} In late 32&nbsp;BC, the Senate officially revoked Antony's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egypt.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=35}}{{Sfn|Eder|2005|page=22}}

[[File:Venus and Cupid from the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII.jpg|thumb|This mid-1st-century-BC [[Pompeian Styles|Roman wall painting]] in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus, [[Pompeii]], is most likely a depiction of [[Cleopatra VII]] of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] as [[Venus Genetrix (sculpture)|Venus Genetrix]], with her son [[Caesarion]] as [[cupid]], similar in appearance to the now-lost statue of Cleopatra erected by [[Julius Caesar]] in the [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]] (within the [[Forum of Caesar]]). Its owner walled off the room with this painting, most likely in immediate reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Augustus in 30 BC, when artistic depictions of Caesarion would have been considered a sensitive issue for the ruling regime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roller |first=Duane W. |title=Cleopatra: a biography |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford: Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-536553-5 |page=175}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Susan |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0068246200000404 |title=Cleopatra in Pompeii? |date=2008 |series=Papers of the British School at Rome |volume=76 |pages=35, 42–44|doi=10.1017/S0068246200000404 |s2cid=62829223 |access-date=10 March 2018 |archive-date=10 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310091735/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0068246200000404}}</ref>]]
In early 31&nbsp;BC, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece when Octavian gained a preliminary victory: the navy successfully ferried troops across the [[Adriatic Sea]] under the command of Agrippa. Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, while Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern [[Corfu]]) and marched south. Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=37}}

Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of [[Actium]] on the western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break free of the [[Blockade|naval blockade]]. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and [[Gaius Sosius]] in the [[Battle of Actium]] on 2 September 31&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=38}} Antony and his remaining forces were spared by a last-ditch effort from Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|pages=38–39}}
[[File:Octavian aureus circa 30 BCE.jpg|thumb|[[Aureus]] of Octavian, {{circa}} 30&nbsp;BC, [[British Museum]]]]
A year later, Octavian [[Battle of Alexandria (30 BC)|defeated their forces]] in Alexandria on 1 August 30&nbsp;BC—after which [[Death of Cleopatra|Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide]]. Antony fell on his own sword and was taken by his soldiers back to Alexandria where he died in Cleopatra's arms. Cleopatra died soon after by poisoning, contrary to the popular belief that she was bitten by an [[Asp (snake)|asp]].{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=39}} Octavian had exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career, and he was well aware of the dangers in allowing another person to do the same. He therefore followed the advice of the Greek philosopher [[Arius Didymus]] that "two Caesars are one too many", ordering Caesarion killed while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus|older son]].{{Sfn|Green|1990|page=697}}{{Sfn|Scullard|1982|page=171}} Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium.{{Sfn|Eck|Takács|2003|page=49}}