19th century

== Wars ==
===Napoleonic Wars===
{{main|Napoleonic Wars}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of the Napoleonic era}}
[[File:Napoleons retreat from moscow.jpg|thumb|right|[[Napoleon]]'s retreat from Russia in 1812. The war swings decisively against the French Empire]]
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] and its allies, led by [[Napoleon I]], against a fluctuating array of [[Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars|European powers formed into various coalitions]], financed and usually led by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the [[French Revolution]] and its [[French Revolutionary Wars|resultant conflict]].

In the aftermath of the [[French Revolution]], [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself [[Emperor of the French]].

In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] ended the [[War of the Third Coalition]]. As a result of the [[Treaty of Pressburg (1805)|Treaty of Pressburg]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was dissolved.

Later efforts were less successful. In the [[Peninsular War]], France unsuccessfully attempted to establish [[Joseph Bonaparte]] as King of Spain. In 1812, the [[French invasion of Russia]] had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

In 1814, after defeat in the [[War of the Sixth Coalition]], Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to [[Elba]]. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the [[Hundred Days]] before finally being defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] and exiled to [[Saint Helena]], an island in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]].

After Napoleon's defeat, the [[Congress of Vienna]] was held to determine new national borders. The [[Concert of Europe]] attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.

===Latin American independence===
{{main|Latin American wars of independence|Spanish American wars of independence}}
[[File:JuraIndependencia.jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of the Chilean declaration of independence|The [[Chilean Declaration of Independence]] on 18 February 1818]]
[[Mexico]] and the majority of the countries in [[Central America]] and [[South America]] obtained independence from [[Colonialism|colonial]] overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, [[Haitian Revolution|Haiti]] gained independence from France. In [[Mexico]], the [[Mexican War of Independence]] was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821.

Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|relocated to Brazil]] from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.

The [[Federal Republic of Central America]] gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perez-Brignoli|first1=Hector|title=A Brief History of Central America|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofce00pr|url-access=registration|date=1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520909762}}</ref>

In 1830, the post-colonial nation of [[Gran Colombia]] dissolved and the nations of [[Colombia]] (including modern-day Panama), [[Ecuador]], and [[Venezuela]] took its place.

===Revolutions of 1848===
{{main|Revolutions of 1848}}
[[File:Maerz1848 berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the [[Revolutions of 1848|European revolutions of 1848]]]]
The [[Revolutions of 1848]] were a series of [[political upheaval]]s throughout [[Europe]] in 1848.  The revolutions were essentially [[democracy|democratic]] and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old [[Monarchy|monarchical]] structures and creating independent nation states.

The first revolution began in [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states|January in Sicily]].{{clarify|date=December 2017}} Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in [[French Revolution of 1848|France in February]]. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.

According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.<ref>R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., ''The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849'' (2000) pp. v, 4</ref>

===Abolition and the American Civil War===
{{main|Abolitionism|American Civil War}}
[[File:Wilberforce john rising.jpg|thumb|[[William Wilberforce]] (1759–1833), politician and philanthropist who was a leader of the movement to [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolish the slave trade]].]]

The [[abolitionism]] movement achieved success in the 19th century. The [[Atlantic slave trade]] was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The [[Slavery Abolition Act]] of 1833 banned slavery throughout the [[British Empire]], and the [[Lei Áurea]] abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.

[[Abolitionism in the United States]] continued until the end of the [[American Civil War]]. [[Frederick Douglass]] and [[Harriet Tubman]] were two of many American abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the [[Underground Railroad]].

The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven [[Southern United States|southern states]] seceded from the [[United States]], largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President [[Abraham Lincoln]] issued the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. Lincoln issued a preliminary<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|title=The Emancipation Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206210236/https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation|archive-date=February 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> on September 22, 1862, warning that in all states still in rebellion ([[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free."<ref>McPherson, J. M. (2014). "Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment", in E. Foner and J. A. Garraty (eds.), ''The Reader's Companion to American History''. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. [http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0] Retrieved from {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106000538/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rcah/emancipation_proclamation_and_thirteenth_amendment/0|date=2018-11-06}}</ref> He did so.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation/transcript.html|title=Transcript of the Proclamation|date=October 6, 2015|website=National Archives}}</ref> The [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the Constitution,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|title=13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery|date=January 27, 2016|website=National Archives|access-date=February 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216131544/https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/13th-amendment|archive-date=February 16, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.

Five days after [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia]], [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln was assassinated]] by actor and [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] sympathiser [[John Wilkes Booth]].

=== Decline of the Ottoman Empire ===
{{main|Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Ibrahim_Pasha_During_his_Final_Years.jpg|alt=Ibrahim_Pasha_During_his_Final_Years|thumb|[[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]] of [[Egypt]], leader of the [[Egyptian Army]] in [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UaesAgAAQBAJ&q=Egyptian%E2%80%93Ottoman+War |title=Ottoman Wars, 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged |date=2014-01-14 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-88403-3 |language=en}}</ref>|252x252px]]

In 1830, [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] became the first country to break away from the [[Ottoman Empire]] after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. In 1831, the [[Bosnian uprising (1831–1832)|Bosnian Uprising]] against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the [[Principality of Serbia]] became [[Suzerainty|suzerain]] from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1831, The [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)|First Egyptian–Ottoman War]] (1831–1833) occurred, between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt brought about by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha's]] demand to the Sublime Porte for control of Greater Syria, as reward for aiding the Sultan during the Greek War of Independence. As a result, Egyptian forces temporarily gained control of Syria, advancing as far north as [[Kütahya]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Westera |first=Rick |title=Historical Atlas of Europe (17 February 1832): First Egyptian-Ottoman War |url=https://omniatlas.com/maps/europe/18320217/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Omniatlas |language=en}}</ref> In 1876, [[Bulgarians]] instigated the [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] against Ottoman rule. Following the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War]], the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]] recognized the formal independence of the Serbia, [[Principality of Montenegro|Montenegro]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]]. [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] became autonomous.

=== China: Taiping Rebellion ===
{{main|Taiping Rebellion}}
[[File:Regaining the Provincial Capital of Ruizhou.jpg|thumb|280px|A scene of the [[Taiping Rebellion]].]]
The [[Taiping Rebellion]] was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20–30 million people. Its leader, [[Hong Xiuquan]], declared himself the younger brother of [[Jesus Christ]] and developed a new Chinese religion known as the [[God Worshipping Society]].  After proclaiming the establishment of the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing [[Nanjing]] in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reilly|first1=Thomas H.|title=The Taiping heavenly kingdom rebellion and the blasphemy of empire|date=2004|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|isbn=978-0295801926|edition=1}}</ref>

=== Japan: Meiji Restoration ===
{{main|Meiji Restoration}}
During the [[Edo period]], [[History of Japan|Japan]] largely pursued an [[Sakoku|isolationist foreign policy]]. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore [[Matthew C. Perry]] threatened the Japanese capital [[Edo]] with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to [[Bakumatsu|the opening of trade relations]] between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of [[Sakoku]] formally ended in 1854.

By 1872, the Japanese government under [[Emperor Meiji]] had [[Abolition of the han system|eliminated the ''daimyō'' system]] and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the [[samurai]] class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.<ref>W. G. Beasley, ''The Meiji Restoration'' (1972),</ref>

=== Colonialism ===
[[File:Arrival of Marshal Randon in Algier-Ernest-Francis Vacherot mg 5120.jpg|thumb|Arrival of Marshal [[Jacques Louis Randon|Randon]] in [[Algiers]], [[French Algeria]] in 1857]]
{{main|Western imperialism in Asia|Scramble for Africa}}
[[File:Rao Baji signing the Treaty of Vasai.jpg|thumb|The [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] and the [[East India Company]] sign the [[Treaty of Bassein (1802)|Treaty of Bassein]] in 1802.]]
* [[1803]]: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the [[Louisiana Purchase]]. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as its [[Manifest Destiny]], which involves [[United States territorial acquisitions|annexing and conquering land]] from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.
* [[1817]]  – [[1819]]: British Empire annexed the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] after the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].
* [[1823]] – [[1887]]: British Empire annexed Burma (now also called [[Myanmar]]) after three [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]].
* [[1848]] – [[1849]]: [[Sikh Empire]] is defeated in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]. Therefore, the entire [[Indian subcontinent]] is under British control. 
* [[1862]]: France gained its first foothold in [[Southeast Asia]] and in [[1863]] annexed [[Cambodia]].
* [[1867]]: United States [[Alaska Purchase|purchased Alaska]] from [[Russia]].

==== Africa ====
[[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|thumb|300px|Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913]]
In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as [[quinine]] and more advanced [[firearms]] allowed European nations to conquer native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Gordon|title=A Short History of Africa: From the Origins of the Human Race to the Arab Spring|date=2012|publisher=Pocket Essentials|location=Harpenden, Herts [UK]|isbn=9781842434420|pages=85–101}}</ref>

Motivations for the [[Scramble for Africa]] included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the [[Suez Canal]], but [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] defeated Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]]. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The [[Berlin Conference]] of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

In 1867, [[diamond]]s were discovered in the [[Kimberley, Northern Cape|Kimberley]] region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in [[South African Republic|Transvaal]]. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by [[Cecil Rhodes]].<ref name="KerrAfrica" />

=== Other wars ===
* [[1801]]–[[1815]]: [[First Barbary War]] and the [[Second Barbary War]] between the United States and the [[Barbary States]] of [[North Africa]].
* [[1802]]: [[Tây Sơn dynasty|Tay Son]] army recaptured [[Thừa Thiên Huế province|Phu Xuan]], causing Vo Tanh to commit suicide, [[Gia Long|Nguyen Phuc Anh]] successfully captured [[Hanoi|Thang Long]], founded the [[Nguyen dynasty]]
* [[1804]]–[[1810]]: [[Fulani War|Fulani Jihad]] in [[Nigeria]].
* [[1804]]–[[1813]]: [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)|Russo-Persian War]].
* [[1806]]–[[1812]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|Russo-Turkish War]], [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)|Treaty of Bucharest]].
* [[1807]]–[[1837]]: [[Musket Wars]] among [[Māori people|Māori]] in many parts of [[New Zealand]]. 
* [[1808]]–[[1809]]: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in the [[Finnish War]].[[File:KingShaka.jpg|thumb|1816: [[Shaka]] rises to power over the [[Zulu Kingdom]]. Zulu expansion was a major factor of the [[Mfecane]] ("Crushing") that depopulated large areas of southern Africa]]
* [[1810]]: [[Grito de Dolores]] begins the [[Mexican War of Independence]].
* [[1811]]: [[Battle of Tippecanoe]]: U.S. outnumbering Native Americans resulting in defeat and burning of community
* [[1812]]–[[1815]]: [[War of 1812]] between the United States and Britain; ends in a draw, except that Native Americans lose power.
* [[1813]]–[[1837]]: [[Afghan–Sikh Wars]].
* [[1814]]–[[1816]]: [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] between [[Nepal]] (Gurkha Empire) and [[British Empire]].
* [[1817]]: First [[Seminole War]] begins in Florida.
* [[1817]]: Russia commences its [[Caucasian War|conquest of the Caucasus]].
* [[1820]]: [[Revolutions of 1820]] in Southern Europe
* [[1821]]–[[1830]]: [[Greek War of Independence]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]]. 
* [[1825]]–[[1830]]: [[Java War]] begins.
* [[1826]]–[[1828]]: After the final [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)|Russo-Persian War]], the [[Qajar dynasty|Persian Empire]] took back territory lost to Russia from the previous war.
* [[1828]]–[[1832]]: [[Black War]] in [[Tasmania]] leads to the near extinction of the [[Tasmanian aborigines]]
* [[1830]]: [[July Revolution]] overthrew old line of Bourbons.
* [[1830]]: [[November Uprising]] in [[Poland]] against [[Russia]].
* [[1830]]: [[Belgian Revolution]] results in [[Belgium]]'s independence from [[Netherlands]].
* [[1830]]: End of the Java War. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies.
* [[1831]]: [[French rule in Algeria|France invades and occupies Algeria]].
* [[1831]]–[[1833]]: [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)|Egyptian–Ottoman War]].
* [[1832]]–[[1875]]: Regimental rebellions of Brazil
* [[1835]]–[[1836]]: [[Texas Revolution]] results in [[Texas]]'s independence from [[Mexico]].
* [[1839]]–[[1842]]: [[First Opium War]] begins.
* [[1846]]–[[1848]]: [[Mexican–American War]] leads to Mexico's cession of much of the modern-day [[Southwestern United States]].
* [[1848]]: [[French Revolution of 1848|February Revolution]] overthrew Louis Philippe's government. Second Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I, elected president.
* [[1853]]–[[1856]]: [[Crimean War]] between France, the United Kingdom, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and Russia.
* [[1857]]: [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] against the [[Company Raj]]. After this the power of the [[East India Company]] is transferred to the [[British Raj|British Crown]].
* [[1859]]: [[Second Italian War of Independence|Franco-Austrian War]] is part of the wars of [[Italian unification]].
* [[1861]]–[[1865]]: [[American Civil War]] between the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] and seceding [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. [[File:EwellsDeadSpotsylvania1864crop01.jpg|thumb|Dead Confederate soldiers. 30% of all Southern white males 18–40 years of age died in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>"''[https://archive.org/details/killinggroundpho0000hudd Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228002928/https://books.google.com/books?id=YpAuHGkuIe0C&pg=PA&dq&hl=en |date=2017-02-28 }}''". John Huddleston (2002). [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8018-6773-8}}</ref>]]
* [[1861]]–[[1867]]: [[Second French intervention in Mexico|French intervention in Mexico]] and the creation of the [[Second Mexican Empire]], ruled by [[Maximilian I of Mexico]] and his consort [[Carlota of Mexico]].
* [[1863]]–[[1865]]: [[January Uprising]] against the [[Russian Empire]].
* [[1864]]–[[1870]]: [[Paraguayan War]] ends Paraguayan ambitions for expansion and destroys much of the Paraguayan population.
* [[1866]]: [[Austro-Prussian War]] results in the dissolution of the [[German Confederation]] and the creation of the [[North German Confederation]] and the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy]].
* [[1868]]–[[1869]]: [[Boshin War]] results in end of the shogunate and the founding the Japanese Empire.
* [[1868]]–[[1878]]: [[Ten Years' War]] between [[Cuba]] and [[Kingdom of Spain|Spain]].
* [[1870]]–[[1871]]: [[Franco-Prussian War]] results in the [[Unification of Germany|unifications of Germany]] and [[Italian unification|Italy]], the collapse of the [[Second French Empire]] and the emergence of a [[New Imperialism]].
* 1870: Napoleon III abdicated after unsuccessful conclusion of Franco-Prussian War. Third Republic proclaimed.
* [[1876]]: The [[April Uprising of 1876|April Uprising]] in [[Bulgaria]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1879]]: [[Anglo-Zulu War]] results in British victory and the annexation of the [[Zulu Kingdom]].
* [[1879]]–[[1880]]: [[Little War (Cuba)|Little War]] against Spanish rule in [[Cuba]] leads to rebel defeat.
* [[1879]]–[[1883]]: [[Chile]] battles with [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] over Andean territory in the [[War of the Pacific]].
* [[1880]]–[[1881]]: [[First Boer War]] begins.
* [[1881]]–[[1899]]: [[Mahdist War]] in [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]].[[File:Battle of Omdurman.jpg|thumb|A depiction of the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898; in the battle, [[Winston Churchill]] took part in a cavalry charge.]]
* [[1882]]: [[Anglo-Egyptian War]] British invasion and subsequent occupation of [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[1883]]–[[1898]]: [[Mandingo Wars]] between the [[French colonial empire]] and the [[Wassoulou Empire]] of the [[Mandinka people|Mandingo]] people led by [[Samory Touré]].
* [[1894]]–[[1895]]: After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], China cedes [[Taiwan]] to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
* [[1895]]: [[Taiwan]] is ceded to the [[Empire of Japan]] as a result of the [[First Sino-Japanese War]].
* [[1895]]–[[1896]]: [[Ethiopia]] defeats Italy in the [[First Italo–Ethiopian War]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]].
* [[1895]]–[[1898]]: [[Cuban War for Independence]] results in Cuban independence from [[Spanish Empire|Spain]].
* [[1896]]–[[1898]]: [[Philippine Revolution]] results in a Filipino victory.
* [[1898]]: [[Spanish–American War]] results in the independence of Cuba.
* [[1899]]–[[1901]]: [[Boxer Rebellion]] in China is suppressed by the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]]. 
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Thousand Days' War]] in [[Colombia]] breaks out between the "[[Liberalism|Liberales]]" and "[[Conservatism|Conservadores]]", culminating with the loss of [[Panama]] in 1903.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Second Boer War]] begins.
* [[1899]]–[[1902]]: [[Philippine–American War]] begins.