Middle Ages Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ===Controversy within the Church=== {{Main|Avignon Papacy|Western Schism}} As prolonged [[papal election]]s and conflicts with the Roman aristocracy had undermined papal authority in Italy, the seat of the papacy was moved to the city of [[Avignon]] in 1309. During the period of the [[Avignon Papacy]], Frenchmen assumed the leadership of the Catholic Church. When the French king [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]] (r. 1285β1314) brought [[Trials of the Knights Templar|false charges]] against the wealthy Knight Templars, [[Pope Clement V]] (pope 1305β14) could not prevent [[Vox in excelso|their suppression]] in 1312.{{sfn|Thomson|1998|pp=164β170}}{{sfn|Vale|2001|pp=331β333}} Under popular pressure, the papal seat was returned to Rome in 1377, but disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the [[Western Schism]], with two and [[Council of Pisa|later]] three rival lines of popes, each supported by several states. The schism was removed at the [[Council of Constance]], with the resignation of one of the popes and the deposition of his two rivals, which paved the way for the election of an Italian cardinal as [[Pope Martin V]] (1417β31).{{sfn|Wickham|2016|p=213}}{{sfn|Swanson|2021|pp=83β86}} Theological debates intensified.{{sfn|Thomson|1998|pp=193β194}} [[John Wycliffe]] (d. 1384), an English theologian, criticised popular acts of devotion, such as pilgrimages, and challenged the Catholic doctrine on the [[Eucharist]].{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|pp=135β136}} His teachings influenced two major movements condemned as heretics by the official Church: [[Lollardy]] in England, and [[Hussites|Hussitism]] in Bohemia.{{sfn|Thomson|1998|p=218}} The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of the Czech theologian [[Jan Hus]] (d. 1415) who was burned at the stake at Constance. Hussitism, although the target of [[Hussite Wars|anti-heretic crusades]], survived as an officially recognised denomination in Bohemia.{{refn|group=note|The Bohemian Diet elected the [[Utraquism|moderate Hussite]] Czech aristocrat [[George of PodΔbrady]] (r. 1457β71) king which provided an excuse for the Hungarian king [[Matthias Corvinus]] (r. 1458β90) to conquer parts of the Czech lands. PodΔbrady was succeeded by the Catholic Polish prince [[Vladislaus II of Hungary|Vladislaus II]] (r. 1471β1516) but the Diet enacted the Czechs' right to freely choose between Hussitism and Catholicism in 1485.{{sfn|Sedlar|1994|pp=389β390}}}}{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|pp=136β137}}{{sfn|Thomson|1998|pp=213β217}} In the hope of western support against the Ottomans, Byzantine church leaders submitted themselves to the papacy at the [[Council of Florence]] in 1438β39, but most Orthodox believers rejected papal supremacy, and those who supported the [[Eastern Catholic Churches|church union]] died in exile.{{refn|group=note|One of the main Byzantine supporters of the church union, the erudite [[Bessarion|Basilios Bessarion]] (d. 1472) aroused the Italian scholars' interest in Greek studies during his exile.{{sfn|Fried|2015|p=370}}}}{{sfn|Hamilton|2003|pp=146β147}} Mysticism and devotional literature flourished.{{sfn|Thomson|1998|pp=199β200}} [[Meister Eckhart]] (d. 1327), a skilful critic of Aquinas, urged the faithful to focus on their inner divine core for perfection. Although his works were censured for heresy, his sermons survived in copies, also read by the Protestant reformator [[Martin Luther]] (d. 1546).{{sfn|Fried|2015|pp=359β361}} The most characteristic late medieval reform movement, the {{lang|la|[[Devotio Moderna]]}} put a special emphasis on lay piety, community experience and personal faith.{{sfn|Thomson|1998|pp=211β213}} In the Orthodox world, the Athonite monks [[Gregory of Sinai]] (d. 1346) and [[Gregory Palamas]] (d. 1359) promoted a form of meditative prayers known as [[Hesychasm]].{{sfn|Fine|2009|pp=437β439}} A general fear of evil practices led to the first [[witch trial]]s around 1450, but a popular handbook, the {{lang|la|[[Malleus Maleficarum]]}} ('Hammer of the Witches'), laid the groundwork for hysterical [[Witch trials in the early modern period|early modern witch hunts]].{{sfn|Fried|2015|pp=460β462}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page