Jainism Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==History== {{Main|History of Jainism}} {{For timeline}} Jainism is a religion founded in [[ancient India]]. Jains trace their history through twenty-four ''[[tirthankars|tirthankaras]]'' and revere [[Rishabhanatha]] as the first ''tirthankara'' (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus River Valley civilization]] have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two ''tirthankaras'', the 23rd ''tirthankara'' [[Parshvanatha]] (c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th ''tirthankara'' [[Mahavira]] (<abbr>c.</abbr> 599 – c. 527 BCE) are historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the [[Buddha]]. According to Jain texts, the 22nd ''Tirthankara'' [[Neminatha]] lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of [[Krishna]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bharatdiscovery.org/india/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0|title=ऋषभनाथ तीर्थंकर | भारतकोश|website=bharatdiscovery.org}}</ref> ===Ancient=== {{See also|Timeline of Jainism|Śramaṇa}} [[File:Photo of lord adinath bhagwan at kundalpur.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Rishabhanatha|Rishabhdev]], believed to have lived over 592.704×10<sup>18</sup> years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism.]] [[File:Faxian's account about the priciple of Ahimsa being followed by the people of ancient India.png|thumb|275x275px|[[Faxian|Faxian's]] account gives us some glimpses of the social conditions in [[India]]. It appears the bulk of the people were vegetarian, and followed the principle of [[Ahimsa]], the most basic fundamental principle of Jainism. They had “no shambles or wine-shops in their market-places.” They do not keep pigs and fowls, nor do they eat onions and garlic, nor drank wine.]] {{Multiple images | image1 = Ashoka Pillar at Feroze Shah Kotla, Delhi 03.JPG | caption1 = Jain inscription of [[Ashoka]] ({{Circa|236 BCE}}) | image2 = Shrine with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha)), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira) LACMA M.85.55 (1 of 4).jpg | caption2 = ''Chaumukha'' Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira), [[LACMA]], sixth century | total_width = 330 | align = right }} Jainism is an ancient [[Indian religion]] of obscure origins.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=185}}{{sfn|Rankin|Mardia|2013|p=975}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=13}} Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first ''tirthankara'' [[Rishabhanatha]] as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=16}} It is one of the ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the [[Veda]]s,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002b|p=639}}{{sfn|Billimoria|1988|pp=1–30}} and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed.{{sfn|Jambuvijaya|2002|p=114}}{{sfn|Pande|1957|p=353}}{{efn|Long notes that [[Ṛṣabha]], the first Tīrthaṅkara of Jainism, means "bull," and that images of bulls are found at seals from the [[Indus Valley civilization]], speculating that they may be related to Jainism.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=53–54}}}} The historicity of first twenty two tirthankaras is not determined yet.{{sfn|Sangave|2001|pp=104, 129}}{{sfn|Saraswati|1908|p=444}} The 23rd Tirthankara, [[Parshvanatha]], was a historical being,{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=183}}{{sfn|Jaini|1998|p=10}} dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE;{{sfn|Barnett|1957|p=7}} historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-travel-down-the-sages/story-SYVGGDouZrOTgJogiul6IN.html|title=Rude Travel: Down The Sages Vir Sanghavi|date=13 September 2013}}</ref> Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth century BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2003a|p=383}}{{sfn|Keown|Prebish|2013|pp=127–130}} The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha;{{sfn|Sangave|2001|p=105}} later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them.{{sfn|Neelis|2010|pp=72–76}}{{sfn|Hirakawa|1993|pp=4–7}} Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines.{{sfn|Qvarnström|2003|pp=ix–xi, 151–162}} Kings [[Bimbisara]] ({{Circa|558}}–491 BCE), [[Ajatashatru]] ({{Circa|492}}–460 BCE), and [[Udayin]] ({{Circa|460}}–440 BCE) of the [[Haryanka dynasty]] were patrons of Jainism.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=41}} Jain tradition states that [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (322–298 BCE), the founder of the [[Mauryan Empire]] and grandfather of [[Ashoka]], became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic [[Bhadrabahu]] in the later part of his life.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=63–65}}{{sfn|Boesche|2003|pp=7–18}} Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=63–65}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=39–46, 234–236}} {{Multiple image | image1 = Udayagiri Caves - Rani Gumpha 01.jpg | caption1 = [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves]] built by [[King Kharavela]] of [[Mahameghavahana dynasty]] in second century CE | image2 = La grotte Jain Indra Sabha Ellora Caves, India.jpg | caption2 = The Indra Sabha cave at the [[Ellora Caves]], are co-located with Hindu and Buddhist monuments. | align = | direction = | total_width = 330 | alt1 = | width = | Kalagumalai = https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kazhugumalai_Jain_beds_(8).jpg }} The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the ''Niganthas'' (Jains).{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=43}} ''Tirthankara'' statues date back to the second century BCE.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=444}} Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE. onwards.{{sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978|pp=9–10}} Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=49}} There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.{{sfn|Cort|2010|p=202}} Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=69–70}} In the second half of the first century CE, Hindu kings of the [[Rashtrakuta]] dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples.{{sfn|Pereira|1977|pp=21–24}} King [[Harshavardhana]] of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=52}} The Pallava King [[Mahendravarman I]] (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=409}} His work ''[[Mattavilasa Prahasana]]'' ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics.{{sfn|Arunachalam|1981|p=170}} The [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadava dynasty]] built many temples at the [[Ellora Caves]] between 700 and 1000 CE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ellora.asp |title=World Heritage Sites – Ellora Caves |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007002950/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ellora.asp |archive-date=7 October 2015 |access-date=23 September 2021 |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]], [[Government of India]]}}</ref>{{sfn|Gopal|1990|p=178}}{{sfn|Owen|2012b|pp=1–10}} King [[Āma]] of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=52–54}} [[Mularaja]] (10th century CE), the founder of the [[Chalukya dynasty]], constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=56}} During the 11th century, [[Basava]], a minister to the Jain [[Kalachuris of Kalyani|Kalachuri]] king [[Bijjala II|Bijjala]], converted many Jains to the [[Lingayatism|Lingayat]] Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=75–77}} The [[Hoysala Dynasty|Hoysala]] King [[Vishnuvardhana]] ({{circa|1108}}–1152 CE) became a [[Vaishnava|Vaishnavite]] under the influence of [[Ramanuja]], and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka.{{sfn|Das|2005|p=161}} ===Medieval=== [[File:Gori Mandar.jpg|alt=Jain monuments in Nagarparkar, Pakistan|thumb|The ruins of [[Gori Temple, Nagarparkar|Gori Jain temples]] in [[Nagarparkar]], Pakistan, a pilgrimage site before 1947.<ref name=":0"/>]] Jainism faced persecution during and after the [[Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent]]. The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of [[Delhi Sultanate]] remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate. [[Alauddin Khalji]] (1296–1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT439|title=The Age of Wrath: A History of The Delhi Sultanate|publisher=Penguin UK|author=[[Burjor Avari]]|date=April 2015|isbn=9789351186588}}</ref> One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat, [[Alp Khan]] permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.<ref name=Pushpa>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=54|title=The Jain Community in the Delhi Sultanate|publisher=[[Indian History Congress]]|author=Pushpa Prasad|pages= 224, 225}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Peter Jackson |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA221 |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=288|isbn=978-0-521-54329-3}}</ref> [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] (1325–1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars.<ref>{{cite book |author = Iqtidar Alam Khan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGSKTttoa3IC&pg=PR17 |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval India |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2008|page=101|quote=Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351) is mentioned in Jain texts as showing favour to Jain scholars|isbn=9780810864016}}</ref> The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal emperors]] in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under [[Humayun]] (1540–1556), [[Akbar]] (1556–1605), [[Jahangir]] (1605–1627) and even [[Aurangzeb]] (1658–1707).<ref>{{Cite web |author=[[Audrey Truschke]]|title=What Aurangzeb did to preserve Hindu temples (and protect non-Muslim religious leaders) |url=https://scroll.in/article/829943/what-aurangzeb-did-to-preserve-hindu-temples-and-protect-non-muslim-religious-leaders |access-date=2022-08-13 |website=Scroll.in |date=23 February 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref> Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains. [[Babur]] (1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in [[Gwalior]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kurt Titze|author2=Klaus Bruhn|title=Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-violence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=loQkEIf8z5wC|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1534-6|pages=101–102 |quote="In 1527, the Urvahi Jinas were mutilated by the Mughal emperor Babar, a fact he records in his memoirs"}}</ref> In 1567, Akbar [[Siege of Chittorgarh (1567-1568)|ravaged the fort of Chittor]]. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ram Vallabh Somani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Mewar, from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D.|publisher=Mateshwari|year=1976|page=221|quote=A glaring example of this sort of feeling is the destruction of several Hindu and Jain shrines, made at Chittor, during the course of invasion by the forces of Akbar|oclc=2929852}}</ref> Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under [[Jahangir]], [[Shah Jahan]] and most notably under [[Aurangzeb]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=EATON |first=RICHARD M. |title=Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States |date=2000 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26198197 |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=283–319 |doi=10.1093/jis/11.3.283 |jstor=26198197 |issn=0955-2340}}</ref> The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Cort|1998|pp=85–86}} ===Colonial era=== {{Multiple images | image1 = Virchand Gandhi poster.jpg | caption1 = A poster of [[Virchand Gandhi]] who represented Jainism at the [[Parliament of the World's Religions]] in [[Chicago]] in 1893. | image2 = Shrimad Rajchandra Spiritual Centre (cropped).jpg | caption2 = A 34 feet tall idol of [[Shrimad Rajchandra]] at [[Dharampur, Gujarat|Dharampur]], [[Valsad district|Valsad]] | total_width=335 }} A Gujarati Jain scholar [[Virchand Gandhi]] represented Jainism at the first [[World Parliament of Religions]] in 1893, held in America during the [[World's Columbian Exposition|Chicago World's Fair]]. He worked to defend the rights of Jains and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism.<ref name=it>{{cite web |title=Virchand Gandhi – a Gandhi before Gandhi An unsung Gandhi who set course for his namesake |url=http://www.indiatribune.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9374:virchand-gandhi--a-gandhi-before-gandhi-an-unsung-gandhi-who-set-course-for-his-namesake-&catid=25:community&Itemid=457 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822022233/http://www.indiatribune.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9374:virchand-gandhi--a-gandhi-before-gandhi-an-unsung-gandhi-who-set-course-for-his-namesake-&catid=25:community&Itemid=457 |work=[[India Tribune]] |archive-date=22 August 2012 |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=OpenCourt>{{cite book|last=Howard|first=Mrs. Charles|title=The Open Court, Vol. 16, Nr. 4 "The Death of Mr. Virchand R. Gandhi"|date=April 1902|publisher=[[The Open Court Publishing Company]] |location=Chicago |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-IeAQAAIAAJ&q=gandh&pg=PA51|language=en}}</ref> [[Shrimad Rajchandra]], a mystic, poet and philosopher revered amongst some Jains in [[Gujarat]] is believed to have attained ''jatismaran gnana'' (ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions.<ref name="KarbhariGāndhī1911">{{cite book|author1=Bhagu F. Karbhari|author2=Vīrchand Rāghavajī Gāndhī|title=The Jain Philosophy: Collected and Ed. by Baghu F. Karbhari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5kWQQAACAAJ|year=1911|publisher=N.M. Tripathi & Company|pages=116–120|language=en}}</ref> He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi.{{sfn|Salter|2002|p=145}} They were introduced in Mumbai in 1891 and had various conversations through letters while Gandhi was in South Africa. Gandhi noted his impression of Shrimad Rajchandra in his autobiography, ''[[The Story of My Experiments with Truth]]'', calling him his "guide and helper" and his "refuge in moments of spiritual crisis". Shrimad Rajchandra composed [[Atma Siddhi|Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra]], considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wiley|first=Kristi L.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/647405338|title=The A to Z of Jainism|date=2006|publisher=Vision Books|isbn=81-7094-690-5|location=New Delhi|oclc=647405338|language=en}}</ref> He expounds on the 6 fundamental truths of the soul:<ref>{{Cite book|last=Doshi|first=Manu|title=Srimad Rajachandra's Atma-Siddhi (in Gujarati and English)|publisher=Koba: Srimad Rajachandra Adhyatmik Sadhana Kendra}}</ref> # Self (soul) exists # It is permanent and eternal # It is the doer of its own actions # It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions # Liberation exists # There is a path to achieve liberation. Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gajanan Krishna |last=Bhatavadekar |title=Report on the Census of the Baroda Territories 1881 |url={{Google books|4AEJAAAAQAAJ |plainurl=yes}} |year=1867 |publisher=[[Government of India]] |page=31 note 140}}</ref>{{sfn|Hopkins|1902|p=283}}{{sfn|Sunavala|1934|pp=91–93}} Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as [[Champat Rai Jain]] defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=33}} Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious.{{sfn|Hackett|2008|pp=63–68}} These criticisms, states [[John E. Cort]], were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity.{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=12–16, 200–207, 218–219, 251 with note 10}} The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance. However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks.{{sfn|Flügel|2006|pp=348–349}} The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. Acharya [[Shantisagar]] entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.{{sfn|Flügel|2006|pp=348–349}} Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the [[British Raj]] and prompted their discontinuance.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=56}} The laws were abolished by India after independence.{{sfn|Flügel|2006|pp=359–360}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page