Dwight D. Eisenhower

=== Relations with Congress ===

[[File:Dwight D. Eisenhower, official Presidential portrait.jpg|thumb|left|Official White House portrait of Eisenhower, {{circa|1960}}]]

Eisenhower had a Republican Congress for only his first two years in office; in the Senate, Republicans held the majority by a one-vote margin. Despite being Eisenhower's political opponent for the 1952 Republican presidential nomination, Senator Majority Leader Robert A. Taft assisted Eisenhower a great deal by promoting the President's proposals among the "Old Guard" Republican Senators. Taft's death in July 1953&mdash;six months into Eisenhower's presidency&mdash;affected Eisenhower both personally and professionally. The President noted he had lost "a dear friend" with Taft's passing. Eisenhower disliked Taft's successor as Majority Leader, Senator [[William Knowland]], and the relationship between the two men led to tension between the Senate and the White House.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=118–119}}</ref>

This prevented Eisenhower from openly condemning Joseph McCarthy's highly criticized methods against communism. To facilitate relations with Congress, Eisenhower decided to ignore McCarthy's controversies and thereby deprive them of more energy from the involvement of the White House. This position drew criticism from a number of corners.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=56–62}}</ref> In late 1953, McCarthy declared on national television that the employment of communists within the government was a menace and would be a pivotal issue in the [[1954 United States Senate elections|1954 Senate elections]]. Eisenhower was urged to respond directly and specify the various measures he had taken to purge the government of communists.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=140}}</ref>

Among Eisenhower's objectives in not directly confronting McCarthy was to prevent McCarthy from dragging the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]] (AEC) into McCarthy's witchhunt, which might interfere with the AEC's work on [[hydrogen bomb]]s and other weapons programs.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=167}}</ref><ref name="y-s-132">{{harvnb|Young|Schilling|2019|p=132}}</ref> In December 1953, Eisenhower learned that nuclear scientist [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]] had been accused of being a spy for the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bundy|1988|pp=305–306}}</ref>  Although Eisenhower never really believed these allegations,<ref>{{harvnb|Bundy|1988|p=305}}</ref> in January 1954 he ordered that "a blank wall" be placed between Oppenheimer and all defense-related activities.<ref>{{harvnb|Young|Schilling|2019|p=128}}</ref> The [[Oppenheimer security hearing]] later that year resulted in the physicist losing his security clearance.<ref>{{harvnb|Bundy|1988|pp=310–311}}</ref> The matter was controversial at the time and remained so in later years, with Oppenheimer achieving a certain martyrdom.<ref name="y-s-132"/> The case would reflect poorly on Eisenhower, but the president had never examined it in any detail and had instead relied excessively upon the advice of his subordinates, especially that of AEC chairman [[Lewis Strauss]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bundy|1988|pp=316–317}}</ref> Eisenhower later suffered a major political defeat when his nomination of Strauss to be Secretary of Commerce was defeated in the Senate in 1959, in part due to Strauss's role in the Oppenheimer matter.<ref>{{harvnb|Young|Schilling|2019|pp=147, 150}}</ref>

In May 1955, McCarthy threatened to issue subpoenas to White House personnel. Eisenhower was furious, and issued an order as follows: "It is essential to efficient and effective administration that employees of the Executive Branch be in a position to be completely candid in advising with each other on official matters&nbsp;... it is not in the public interest that any of their conversations or communications, or any documents or reproductions, concerning such advice be disclosed." This was an unprecedented step by Eisenhower to protect communication beyond the confines of a cabinet meeting, and soon became a tradition known as [[executive privilege]]. Eisenhower's denial of McCarthy's access to his staff reduced McCarthy's hearings to rants about trivial matters and contributed to his ultimate downfall.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|pp=188–189}}</ref>

In early 1954, the Old Guard put forward a constitutional amendment, called the [[Bricker Amendment]], which would curtail international agreements by the Chief Executive, such as the [[Yalta Agreement]]s. Eisenhower opposed the measure.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=154}}</ref> The Old Guard agreed with Eisenhower on the development and ownership of nuclear reactors by private enterprises, which the Democrats opposed. The President succeeded in getting legislation creating a system of licensure for nuclear plants by the AEC.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=157}}</ref>

The Democrats gained a majority in both houses in the 1954 election.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1984|p=219}}</ref> Eisenhower had to work with the Democratic Majority Leader [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (later US president) in the Senate and Speaker [[Sam Rayburn]] in the House. [[Joseph W. Martin Jr.|Joe Martin]], the Republican Speaker from 1947 to 1949 and again from 1953 to 1955, wrote that Eisenhower "never surrounded himself with assistants who could solve political problems with professional skill. There were exceptions, [[Leonard W. Hall]], for example, who as chairman of the [[Republican National Committee]] tried to open the administration's eyes to the political facts of life, with occasional success. However, these exceptions were not enough to right the balance."<ref name=martin>Joseph W. Martin as told to Donavan, Robert J. (1960), ''My First Fifty Years in Politics'', New York: McGraw Hill, p. 227</ref>

Speaker Martin concluded that Eisenhower worked too much through subordinates in dealing with Congress, with results, "often the reverse of what he has desired" because Members of Congress, "resent having some young fellow who was picked up by the White House without ever having been elected to office himself coming around and telling them 'The Chief wants this'. The administration never made use of many Republicans of consequence whose services in one form or another would have been available for the asking."<ref name=martin />