Racial segregation

=== <span class="anchor" id="RS-US"></span> United States ===
{{See also|Racial segregation in the United States#Contemporary}}
[[De facto#Segregation|De facto segregation]] in the United States has increased since the [[civil rights movement]], while official segregation has been outlawed.<ref name="Kozol2005">{{Cite book |last=Kozol |first=Jonathan |url=https://archive.org/details/shameofnation00jona |title=The Shame of the Nation |publisher=Random House |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4000-5245-5}}</ref> The Supreme Court ruled in [[Milliken v. Bradley]] (1974) that de facto racial segregation was acceptable, as long as schools were not actively making policies for racial exclusion; since then, schools have been segregated due to myriad indirect factors.<ref name=Kozol2005/>

[[Redlining]] is part of how white communities in America maintained some level of racial segregation. It is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as mortgages, banking, insurance, access to jobs,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities |url=http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060513204845/http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2006 |access-date=18 January 2010}}</ref> access to health care, or even supermarkets<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Elizabeth Eisenhauer |url=https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1015772503007 |title=In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition |date=February 2001 |journal=[[GeoJournal]] |volume=53 |issue=2|pages=125–133 |doi=10.1023/A:1015772503007 |s2cid=151164815 }}</ref> to residents in certain, often racially determined,<ref name="eastny">{{Cite book |last=Walter Thabit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWo8OFJpFtAC |title=How East New York Became a Ghetto | year=2003 |isbn=0-8147-8267-1 |page=42| publisher=NYU Press }}</ref> areas. The most effective form of redlining, and the practice most commonly meant by the term, refers to [[Mortgage Discrimination|mortgage discrimination]]. Over the next twenty years, a succession of further court decisions and federal laws, including the ''[[Home Mortgage Disclosure Act]]'' and measure to end [[Mortgage Discrimination|mortgage discrimination]] in 1975, would completely invalidate ''[[de jure]]'' racial segregation and discrimination in the U.S. According to Rajiv Sethi, an economist at [[Columbia University]], black-white [[housing segregation in the United States|segregation in housing]] is slowly declining for most metropolitan areas in the US.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sethi |first1=R. |title=Inequality and Segregation |last2=Somanathan |first2=R. |work=[[Journal of Political Economy]] |year=2004}}</ref> Racial segregation or separation can lead to social, economic and political tensions.<ref name="Keating">{{Cite book |last=Keating |first=William Dennis |title=The Suburban Racial Dilemma: Housing and Neighborhoods |publisher=Temple University Press |year=1994 |isbn=1-56639-147-4}}</ref> Thirty years (the year 2000) after the civil rights era, the United States remained in many areas a residentially segregated society, in which Blacks, whites and [[Hispanics in the United States|Hispanics]] inhabit different neighborhoods of vastly different quality.<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 February 1998 |title=Myth of the Melting Pot: America's Racial and Ethnic Divides |publisher=Washington post.com |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/meltingpot/melt0222.htm |access-date=18 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Massey |first=Douglas S. |title=Segregation and stratification: A bio-social perspective |work=[[Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race]] |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |pages=7–25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rajiv Sethi |title=Inequality and Segregation |last2=Rohini Somanathan |work=Journal of Political Economy |year=2004 |volume=112 |pages=1296–1321}}</ref>

Dan Immergluck writes that in 2002 small businesses in black neighborhoods still received fewer loans, even after accounting for businesses density, businesses size, industrial mix, neighborhood income, and the credit quality of local businesses.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Immergluck |first=D. |title=Redlining Redux |journal=Urban Affairs Review |year=2002 |volume=38 |pages=22–41 |doi=10.1177/107808702401097781 |issue=1 |s2cid=153818729}}</ref> Gregory D. Squires wrote in 2003 that it is clear that race has long affected and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Squires, Gregory D. |title=Racial Profiling, Insurance Style: Insurance Redlining and the Uneven Development of Metropolitan Areas |journal=Journal of Urban Affairs |year=2003 |volume=25 |pages=391–410 |doi=10.1111/1467-9906.t01-1-00168 |issue=4 |s2cid=10070258}}</ref> Workers living in American [[inner city|inner cities]] have a harder time finding jobs than suburban workers.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Zenou |first1=Yves |title=Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities |last2=Nicolas |year=1999}}</ref>

Some academics have labeled the desire of many whites to avoid having their children attend academically inferior integrated schools as being a factor in "[[white flight]]" from the cities.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=VI De Facto Segregation |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580651_3/Segregation_in_the_United_States.html#s15 |access-date=9 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430211002/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580651_3/Segregation_in_the_United_States.html#s15 |archive-date=30 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> A 2007 study in [[San Francisco]] showed that groups of homeowners of all races tended to self-segregate in order to be with people of the same economic status, education level and race.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bayer |first1=Patrick |url=http://real.wharton.upenn.edu/~fferreir/documents/522381.pdf |title=A Unified Framework for Measuring Preferences for Schools and Neighborhoods |last2=Fernando Ferreira |last3=Robert McMillan |date=August 2007 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=115 |pages=588–638 |citeseerx=10.1.1.499.9191 |doi=10.1086/522381 |ssrn=466280 |access-date=25 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808103933/http://real.wharton.upenn.edu/%7Efferreir/documents/522381.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2017 |url-status=dead |issue=4}}</ref> By 1990, the legal barriers enforcing segregation had been mostly replaced, although today many white Americans are willing to pay a premium to live in a predominantly white neighborhood.<ref name="vigdor">{{Cite journal |last1=Cutler |first1=David M. |url=http://www.econ.wayne.edu/agoodman/7500/functions/Seg_JPE.pdf |title=The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto |last2=Edward L. Glaeser |last3=Jacob L. Vigdor |date=June 1999 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=107 |pages=455–506 |doi=10.1086/250069 |issue=3 |s2cid=134413201}}</ref> Equivalent housing in white areas commands a higher rent.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kiel K.A., Zabel J.E. |title=Housing Price Differentials in U.S. Cities: Household and Neighborhood Racial Effects |journal=Journal of Housing Economics |year=1996 |volume=5 |page=143 |doi=10.1006/jhec.1996.0008 |issue=2}}</ref> These higher rents are largely attributable to [[exclusionary zoning]] policies that restrict the supply of housing. Through the 1990s, residential segregation remained at its extreme and has been called "[[hypersegregation]]" by some sociologists or "American Apartheid".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Massey D.S., Denton N. A. |title=American Apartheid. |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1993 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>
In February 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in ''Johnson v. California'' {{ussc|543|499|2005}} that the [[California Department of Corrections]]' unwritten practice of racially segregating prisoners in its prison reception centers—which California claimed was for inmate safety (gangs in California, as throughout the U.S., usually organize on racial lines)—is to be subject to [[strict scrutiny]], the highest level of [[constitutional review]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Johnson v. California, 543 U.S. 499 (2005) |url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/543/499/ |access-date=30 April 2019 |website=Justia Law |language=en}}</ref>