Middle Ages Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ===Collapse of Byzantium and rise of the Ottomans=== {{main|Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|Rise of the Ottoman Empire}} {{See also|Byzantine–Ottoman Wars|Bulgarian–Ottoman wars|Ottoman–Hungarian wars}} [[File:1396-Battle of Nicopolis.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Horsemen and infantry fighting at a fortress on a river|[[Battle of Nicopolis]] depicted in the late-16th-century Ottoman illuminated chronicle {{lang|tr|[[Hünername]]}}]] Facing financial crises and threats from the west, the restored Byzantine Empire was unable to prevent the Turks' expansion in Anatolia. Revolts by [[Catalan Company|Catalan mercenaries]] and recurring civil wars further weakened the empire,{{refn|group=note|The [[Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328|first civil war]] broke out when Emperor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos|Andronikos II]] (r. 1282–1328) disinherited his grandson [[Andronikos III Palaiologos|Andronikos III]] (r. 1328–41) for [[fratricide]]. The [[Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347|second civil war]] was fought over the regency for {{nowrap|Andronikos III's}} underage son [[John V Palaiologos|John V]] (r. 1341–90) between the powerful aristocrat [[John VI Kantakouzenos|John Kantakouzenos]] (d. 1383) and his opponents. Kantakouzenos was crowned co-emperor as {{nowrap|John VI}} (r. 1347–54) but his conflict with {{nowrap|John V}} caused the [[Byzantine civil war of 1352–1357|third civil war]].{{sfn|Fine|2009|pp=250, 290–293, 325–327}}}} allowing the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] to establish a strategic bridgehead [[Fall of Gallipoli|at Gallipoli]] in Europe in 1354.{{sfn|Fine|2009|pp=230–235, 250–252, 325–326}}{{sfn|Denley|2001|pp=256–257}} Within a century, the Ottomans reduced the competing southeastern European kingdoms, principalities and lordships to [[Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire|tributary state]]s.{{sfn|Sedlar|1994|pp=385–387}}{{sfn|Fine|2009|pp=407, 412, 472}} International coalitions, such as the [[Crusade of Nicopolis|Crusades of Nicopolis]] (1396) and [[Crusade of Varna|Varna]] (1444), could not stop their advance.{{sfn|Denley|2001|pp=266–267}} The last Byzantine emperor [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]] (r. 1449–53) died fighting during the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan [[Mehmed II]] (r. 1451–81).{{sfn|Fine|2009|p=563}} Talented military commanders could repel individual Ottoman attacks{{refn|group=note|[[Skanderbeg]] (d. 1468) resisted Ottoman conquest for more than two decades at the head of a [[League of Lezhë|league of Albanian lords]]; [[John Hunyadi]] (d. 1456) defeated the Ottomans [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|at Belgrade]], and the Moldavian prince [[Stephen the Great]] (r. 1457–1504) [[Battle of Vaslui|at Vaslui]].{{sfn|Sedlar|1994|pp=248–249, 251, 254}}}} but by the end of the century the Ottomans conquered almost the whole Balkans: Bulgaria was fully [[Ottoman conquest of Bulgaria|occupied in 1396]], Serbia [[Ottoman conquest of Serbia|in 1459]], Byzantine Greece [[Ottoman conquest of the Morea|in 1460]], Bosnia [[Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina|in 1463]], and the Ottomans broke all [[Albanian principalities|Albanian lords']] resistance by 1488.{{sfn|Fine|2009|pp=424–425, 561–604}} The Ottoman sultans ruled a highly centralised state, often appointing [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|slaves]] to the highest offices. From the late {{nowrap|15th century}}, the sultans murdered their brothers to avoid succession crises.{{sfn|Sedlar|1994|pp=26, 32, 96}} Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page