Lutheranism

==Practices==
[[File:EinFesteBurg.jpg|upright=1.0|right|thumb|Luther composed hymns and hymn tunes, including "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("[[A Mighty Fortress Is Our God]]").]]
[[File:Cropped Luckau Nikolaikirche Abendmahlsbild.jpg|thumb|[[Divine Service (Lutheran)|Divine Service]] at the St. Nicholas church in [[Luckau]], Germany]]

===Liturgy===
{{Further|Lutheran art|Lutheran hymn|Lutheran chorale|Hymnody of continental Europe#Reformation}}
Lutherans place great emphasis on a [[liturgy|liturgical]] approach to worship services;<ref>McGrath, Alister, E. ''Christianity: An Introduction''. 2nd ed. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2006. p. 272.</ref> although there are substantial non-liturgical minorities, for example, the [[Haugean]] Lutherans from Norway. Martin Luther was a great proponent of music, and this is why music forms a central part of Lutheran services to this day. In particular, Luther admired the composers [[Josquin des Prez]] and [[Ludwig Senfl]], and wanted singing in the church to move away from the ''ars perfecta'' (Catholic Sacred Music of the late Renaissance) and towards singing as a ''[[Gemeinschaft]]'' (community).<ref>Taruskin, Richard. ''The Oxford History of Western Music – Volume I (Music in the Earliest Notations to the sixteenth century)'', pp. 753–758 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010)</ref> Lutheran [[hymn]]s are sometimes known as [[chorale]]s. Lutheran hymnody is well known for its doctrinal, [[didactic]], and musical richness. Most Lutheran churches are active musically with choirs, handbell choirs, children's choirs, and occasionally [[change ringing]] groups that ring bells in a [[bell tower]]. [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], a devout Lutheran, composed a huge body of sacred music for the Lutheran church.

Lutherans also preserve a liturgical approach to the celebration of the Holy Eucharist/Communion, emphasizing the Sacrament as the central act of Christian worship. Lutherans believe that the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ are present in, with and under the bread and the wine. This belief is called [[Real Presence]] or [[sacramental union]] and is different from [[consubstantiation]] and [[transubstantiation]]. Additionally Lutherans reject the idea that communion is a mere symbol or [[Memorialism|memorial]]. They confess in the ''[[Apology of the Augsburg Confession]]'':
<blockquote>[W]e do not abolish the Mass but religiously keep and defend it. Among us the Mass is celebrated every Lord's Day and on other [[s:Augsburg Confession#Article XV: Of Ecclesiastical Usages.|festivals]], when the Sacrament is made available to those who wish to partake of it, after they have been examined and absolved. We also keep traditional liturgical forms, such as the order of readings, prayers, vestments, and other similar things.<ref>''Apology of the Augsburg Confession'', Article XXIV.1</ref></blockquote>In addition to the Holy Communion (Divine Service), congregations frequently also hold offices, which are worship services without communion. They may include [[Matins in Lutheranism|Matins]], [[Vespers in Lutheranism|Vespers]], [[Compline]], or other observances of the [[Canonical Hours|Daily Office]]. Private or family offices include the [[s:Luther's Small Catechism#HOW THE HEAD OF THE FAMILY Should Teach His Household to Bless Themselves in the Morning and in the Evening.|Morning and Evening Prayers]] from Luther's ''Small Catechism''.<ref name=daily>See [http://www.bookofconcord.com/smallcatechism.php#prayers Luther's Small Catechism, Daily Prayers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201231739/http://www.bookofconcord.com/smallcatechism.php#prayers |date=1 February 2010 }}</ref> Meals are blessed with the ''[[Common table prayer]]'', {{bibleverse||Psalm|145:15–16|31}}, or other prayers, and after eating the Lord is thanked, for example, with {{bibleverse||Psalm|136:1|9}}. Luther himself encouraged the use of Psalm verses, such as those already mentioned, along with the Lord's Prayer and another short prayer before and after each meal: [[s:Luther's Small Catechism#HOW THE HEAD OF THE FAMILY Should Teach His Household to Ask a Blessing and Return Thanks.|Blessing and Thanks at Meals]] from Luther's ''Small Catechism''.<ref name=daily/> In addition, Lutherans use devotional books, from small [[daily devotional]]s, for example, ''[[Portals of Prayer]]'', to large [[breviary|breviaries]], including the ''[[Evangelisch-Lutherische Gebetsbruderschaft|Breviarium Lipsiensae]]'' and ''Treasury of Daily Prayer''.

The predominant rite used by Lutheran churches is a Western one based on the ''[[Formula missae]]'' ("Form of the Mass"), although other Lutheran liturgies are also in use, such as those used in the [[Byzantine Rite Lutheranism|Byzantine Rite Lutheran Churches]], such as the [[Ukrainian Lutheran Church]] and [[Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Slovenia]].<ref name="HämmerliMayer2016">{{cite book|last1=Hämmerli|first1=Maria|last2=Mayer|first2=Jean-François|title=Orthodox Identities in Western Europe: Migration, Settlement and Innovation|date=23 May 2016|publisher=Routledge|language=en|isbn=9781317084914|page=13}}</ref> Although Luther's [[Deutsche Messe]] was completely chanted except for the sermon, this is less common today.

In the 1970s, many Lutheran churches began holding [[contemporary worship]] services for the purpose of evangelistic outreach. These services were in a variety of styles, depending on the preferences of the congregation. Often they were held alongside a traditional service in order to cater to those who preferred [[contemporary worship music]]. Today, a few Lutheran congregations have contemporary worship as their sole form of worship. Outreach is no longer given as the primary motivation; rather this form of worship is seen as more in keeping with the desires of individual congregations.<ref>Principle examples of this in the ELCA include [http://www.familyofgod.us Family of God, Cape Coral FL.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716234118/http://www.familyofgod.us/ |date=16 July 2020 }}, [http://www.the-well.org/ The Well, Charlotte NC], [http://www.hosannalc.org Hosanna! of Lakeville, Minnesota], and [http://www.apostleschurch.org/home.php Church of the Apostles, Seattle WA.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060820204437/http://www.apostleschurch.org/home.php |date=20 August 2006 }}.</ref> In Finland, Lutherans have experimented with the {{interlanguage link|St Thomas Mass|fi|Tuomasmessu}} and [[Metal Mass]] in which traditional hymns are adapted to heavy metal. Some Laestadians enter a heavily emotional and [[religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] state during worship. The [[Lutheran World Federation]], in its Nairobi Statement on Worship and Culture, recommended every effort be made to bring church services into a more sensitive position with regard to cultural context.<ref>"A given culture's values and patterns, insofar as they are consonant with the values of the Gospel, can be used to express the meaning and purpose of Christian worship. Contextualization is a necessary task for the Church's mission in the world, so that the Gospel can be ever more deeply rooted in diverse local cultures."
[http://www.worship.ca/docs/lwf_ns.html/ NAIROBI STATEMENT ON WORSHIP AND CULTURE: Contemporary Challenges and Opportunities] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222182255/http://www.worship.ca/docs/lwf_ns.html |date=22 February 2007 }}</ref>

In 2006, both the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] (ELCA) and the [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]] (LCMS), in cooperation with certain international English speaking church bodies within their respective fellowships, released new hymnals: ''[[Evangelical Lutheran Worship]]'' (ELCA) and ''[[Lutheran Service Book]]'' (LCMS). Along with these, the most widely used among English speaking congregations include: ''[[Evangelical Lutheran Hymnary]]'' (1996, [[Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]), ''The [[Lutheran Book of Worship]]'' (1978, [[Lutheran Council in the United States of America]]), ''[[Lutheran Worship]]'' (1982, LCMS), ''[[Christian Worship Hymnal|Christian Worship]]'' (1993, [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]), and ''[[The Lutheran Hymnal]]'' (1941, [[Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America]]). In the [[Lutheran Church of Australia]], the official hymnal is the ''Lutheran Hymnal with Supplement'' of 1986, which includes a supplement to the ''Lutheran Hymnal'' of 1973, itself a replacement for the ''Australian Lutheran Hymn Book'' of 1921. Prior to this time, the two Lutheran church bodies in Australia ([[History of the Lutheran Church of Australia#Merge of UELCA and ELCA into the Lutheran Church of Australia|which merged in 1966]]) used a bewildering variety of hymnals, usually in the German language. Spanish-speaking ELCA churches frequently use ''Libro de Liturgia y Cántico'' (1998, Augsburg Fortress) for services and hymns. For a more complete list, see [[List of English-language hymnals by denomination#Lutheran|List of English language Lutheran hymnals]].

===Missions===
[[File:Narsapurlutheran.jpg|thumb|[[Christ Lutheran Church, Narsapur|Christ Lutheran Church]] in [[India]]]]
Sizable Lutheran [[Christian mission|missions]] arose for the first time during the 19th century. Early missionary attempts during the century after the Reformation did not succeed. However, European traders brought Lutheranism to [[Africa]] beginning in the 17th century as they settled along the coasts. During the first half of the 19th century, missionary activity in Africa expanded, including preaching by missionaries, translation of the Bible, and education.<ref>Piepkorn, A.C. ''Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations''. San Francisco: [[Harper and Row]], 1978. p. 31.</ref>

Lutheranism came to [[Christianity in India#Arrival of Protestant missions|India]] beginning with the work of [[Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg]], where a community totaling several thousand developed, complete with their own translation of the Bible, catechism, their own hymnal, and system of Lutheran schools. In the 1840s, this church experienced a revival through the work of the Leipzig Mission, including [[Karl Graul]].<ref>Piepkorn, A.C., ''Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations''. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 32.</ref> After German missionaries were expelled in 1914, Lutherans in India became entirely autonomous, yet preserved their Lutheran character. In recent years India has relaxed its anti-religious conversion laws, allowing a resurgence in missionary work.

In [[Latin America]], missions began to serve European immigrants of Lutheran background, both those who spoke German and those who no longer did. These churches in turn began to evangelize those in their areas who were not of European background, including indigenous peoples.<ref>Piepkorn, A.C., ''Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations''. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 35.</ref>

In 1892, the first Lutheran missionaries reached [[Christianity in Japan#Opening of Japan|Japan]]. Although work began slowly and a major setback occurred during the hardships of [[WWII]].<ref>Piepkorn, A.C., ''Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations''. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 33.</ref> Lutheranism there has survived and become self-sustaining.<ref name=P34>Piepkorn, A.C., ''Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations''. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. p. 34.</ref> After missionaries to China, including those of the [[Lutheran Church of China]], were expelled, they began ministry in [[Taiwan]] and [[Hong Kong]], the latter which became a center of Lutheranism in Asia.<ref name=P34/>

The [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea#History|Lutheran Mission in New Guinea]], though founded only in 1953, became the largest Lutheran mission in the world in only several decades. Through the work of native lay evangelists, many tribes of diverse languages were reached with the Gospel.<ref name=P34/>

Today the Lutheran World Federation operates [[Lutheran World Relief]], a relief and development agency active in more than 50 countries.

===Education===
[[File:Resurrection Lutheran School Rochester MN WELS.jpg|thumb|Resurrection Lutheran School is a parochial school of the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]] (WELS) in [[Rochester, Minnesota]] and the fourth-largest private school system in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hunt|first1=T.|last2=Carper|first2=J.|title=The Praeger Handbook of Faith-Based Schools in the United States, K-12, Volume 1|year=2012|pages=177|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0313391392}}</ref>]][[s:Luther's Small Catechism/Preface|Catechism instruction]] is considered foundational in most Lutheran churches. Almost all maintain [[Sunday School]]s, and some host or maintain [[Lutheran school]]s, at the preschool, elementary, middle, high school, [[folk high school]], or university level. Lifelong study of the catechism is intended for all ages so that the abuses of the pre-Reformation Church will not recur.<ref>[http://www.bookofconcord.com/largecatechism/2_preface.html Preface] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121011806/http://bookofconcord.com/largecatechism/2_preface.html |date=21 November 2008 }} to Luther's [[Luther's Large Catechism|Large]] and [http://www.bookofconcord.com/smallcatechism.html#preface preface] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128133418/http://www.bookofconcord.com/smallcatechism.html#preface |date=28 November 2006 }} to Luther's ''Small Catechism''.</ref> Lutheran schools have always been a core aspect of Lutheran mission work, starting with Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Putschasu, who began work in India in year 1706.<ref name=ENC3367>Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William, ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3''. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2003. p. 367.</ref> During the [[Counter-Reformation#Bohemia and Austria|Counter-Reformation]] era in German speaking areas, backstreet Lutheran schools were the main Lutheran institution among [[Crypto-protestantism|crypto-Lutherans]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2f69mKhTDNQC&dq=Winkel+Schule+%22Lutheran+doctrine%22&pg=PA12 Absolutism and the Eighteenth-Century Origins of Compulsory Schooling in Prussia and Austria] (Google Books) by James van Horn Melton, Cambridge University Press, 1988.</ref>

Pastors almost always have substantial theological educations, including [[Koine Greek]] and [[Biblical Hebrew]] so that they can refer to the Christian scriptures in the original language. Pastors usually teach in the common language of the local congregation. In the U.S., some congregations and synods historically taught in [[German language|German]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], or [[Swedish language|Swedish]], but retention of immigrant languages has been in significant decline since the early and middle 20th century.

===Church fellowship===
[[Image:Juleum Helmstedt Collegium.jpg|thumb|[[Georg Calixtus]] taught at the [[University of Helmstedt]] during the [[Syncretistic controversy]].]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1985-0109-502, Kirchenwahl.- Propaganda der "Deutschen Christen" in Berlin.jpg|thumb|[[Sturmabteilung|Stormtroopers]] holding [[German Christian (movement)|German Christian]] propaganda during church council elections on 23 July 1933 at [[St. Mary's Church, Berlin|St. Mary's Church]] in [[Berlin]] after which internal struggles, controversies, reorganization, and splits struck the [[German Evangelical Church]], resulting in the [[Confessing Church]]'s creation.]]
[[File:Communion3.jpg|thumb|A Lutheran pastor wearing a [[chasuble]] during communion]]
[[File:Confirmation_in_Lunder_Church,_Norway.JPG|thumb|Confirmation at the [[Church of Norway]]'s Lunder Church in [[Ringerike (municipality)|Ringerike]], Norway in 2012]]
[[File:Læstardianer.jpg|thumb|A [[Laestadianism|Læstadian]] lay preacher in [[Finnmark]], Norway in 1898]]
Lutherans were divided about the issue of church fellowship for the first 30 years after Luther's death. [[Philipp Melanchthon]] and his [[Philippists|Philippist]] party felt that Christians of different beliefs should join in union with each other without completely agreeing on doctrine. Against them stood the [[Gnesio-Lutherans]], led by [[Matthias Flacius]] and the faculty at the [[University of Jena]]. They condemned the Philippist position for [[indifferentism]], describing it as a "unionistic compromise" of precious Reformation theology. Instead, they held that genuine unity between Christians and real theological peace was only possible with an honest agreement about every subject of doctrinal controversy.<ref>Klug, Eugene F. and Stahlke, Otto F. ''Getting into the Formula of Concord''. St. Louis: Concordia, 1977. p. 16</ref>

Complete agreement finally came about in 1577, after the death of both Melanchthon and Flacius, when a new generation of theologians resolved the doctrinal controversies on the basis of Scripture in the ''[[Formula of Concord]]'' of 1577.<ref>Klug, Eugene F. and Stahlke, Otto F. ''Getting into the Formula of Concord''. St. Louis: Concordia. p. 18</ref> Although they decried the visible division of Christians on earth, orthodox Lutherans avoided [[ecumenism|ecumenical]] fellowship with other churches, believing that Christians should not, for example, join for the [[Eucharist|Lord's Supper]] or exchange pastors if they do not completely agree about what the Bible teaches. In the 17th century, [[Georgius Calixtus]] began a rebellion against this practice, sparking the [[Syncretism#Syncretistic Controversy|Syncretistic Controversy]] with [[Abraham Calovius]] as his main opponent.<ref>See ''[http://www.blts.edu/essays/schmelingTR/Consensus%20Repetitus.pdf Lutheran Orthodoxy Under Fire: An Exploratory Study of the Syncretistic Controversy And The Consensus Repetitus Fidei Vere Lutheranae] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100415200455/http://www.blts.edu/essays/schmelingTR/Consensus%20Repetitus.pdf |date=15 April 2010 }}'' and ''[http://www.blts.edu/essays/schmelingTR/Calov.pdf Strenuus Christi Athleta Abraham Calov (1612–1686): Sainted Doctor And Defender of the Church] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100415200704/http://www.blts.edu/essays/schmelingTR/Calov.pdf |date=15 April 2010 }}'', both by Timothy R. Schmeling</ref>

In the 18th century, there was some ecumenical interest between the [[Church of Sweden]] and the [[Church of England]]. [[John Robinson (bishop of London)|John Robinson]], Bishop of London, planned for a union of the English and Swedish churches in 1718. The plan failed because most Swedish bishops rejected the Calvinism of the Church of England, although [[Jesper Swedberg]] and [[Johannes Gezelius the younger]], bishops of Skara, Sweden and Turku, Finland, were in favor.<ref>{{in lang|sv}}[http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/ArticlePages/200508/16/20050816074719_svkhjs928/20050816074719_svkhjs928.dbp.asp Svenskakyrkan.se] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930215322/http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/ArticlePages/200508/16/20050816074719_svkhjs928/20050816074719_svkhjs928.dbp.asp |date=30 September 2007 }}</ref> With the encouragement of Swedberg, church fellowship was established between Swedish Lutherans and Anglicans in the [[Middle Colonies]]. Over the course of the 1700s and the early 1800s, Swedish Lutherans were absorbed into Anglican churches, with the last original Swedish congregation completing merger into the Episcopal Church in 1846.<ref>Bente, Friedrich, 1858–1930. [https://archive.org/details/americanluthera01bentgoog/page/n29 <!-- pg=13 --> American Lutheranism Volume 1: Early History of American Lutheranism]: Lutheran Swedes in Delaware. St. Louis: Concordia, 1919, pp. 13–16.</ref>

In the 19th century, [[Samuel Simon Schmucker]] attempted to lead the [[General Synod (Lutheran)|Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of the United States]] toward unification with other American Protestants. His attempt to get the synod to reject the ''Augsburg Confession'' in favor of his compromising ''Definite Platform'' failed. Instead, it sparked a Neo-Lutheran revival, prompting many to form the [[General Council (Lutheran)|General Council]], including [[Charles Porterfield Krauth]]. Their alternative approach was "Lutheran pulpits for Lutheran ministers only and Lutheran altars...for Lutheran communicants only."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eklund |first1=Emmet E. |year=1988 |title=His Name Was Jonas: A Biography of Jonas Swenson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE8rAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Lutheran+ministers+only,+and+Lutheran+altars%22+%22general+council%22 |location=Rock Island, Ill. |publisher=Augustana Historical Society |page=99 |isbn=978-0910184366 |access-date=21 September 2017 }}</ref>

Beginning in 1867, confessional and liberal minded Lutherans in Germany joined to form the ''Common Evangelical Lutheran Conference'' against the ever looming prospect of a state-mandated union with the Reformed.<ref name=Gritsch185>Gritsch, Eric W. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fIhb4-iBk6EC&pg=PA185 A History of Lutheranism]. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 185.</ref> However, they failed to reach consensus on the degree of shared doctrine necessary for church union.<ref name=Gritsch184/> Eventually, the fascist [[German Christians (movement)|German Christians]] movement pushed the final national merger of Lutheran, [[United and uniting churches|Union]], and Reformed church bodies into a single [[Protestant Reich Church|Reich Church]] in 1933, doing away with the previous umbrella [[German Evangelical Church Confederation]] (DEK). As part of [[denazification]] the Reich Church was formally done away with in 1945, and certain clergy were removed from their positions. However, the merger between the Lutheran, United, and Reformed state churches was retained under the name [[Protestant Church in Germany]] (Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland, EKD). In 1948 the Lutheran church bodies within the EKD founded the [[United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany]] (VELKD), but it has since been reduced from being an independent legal entity to an administrative unit within the EKD.

Lutherans are currently divided over how to interact with other Christian denominations. Some Lutherans assert that everyone must share the "whole counsel of God" (Acts 20:27) in complete unity (1 Cor. 1:10)<ref>For a historical example, see Robert Preus, ''To Join or Not To Join''. [[North Dakota District (LCMS)|North Dakota District of The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]], 1968.</ref> before pastors can share each other's pulpits, and before communicants commune at each other's altars, a practice termed [[closed communion|closed (or close) communion]]. On the other hand, other Lutherans practice varying degrees of [[open communion]] and allow preachers from other Christian denominations in their pulpits.

While not an issue in the majority of Lutheran church bodies, some of them forbid membership in [[Freemasonry]]. Partly, this is because the lodge is viewed as spreading [[Unitarianism]], as the Brief Statement of the [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod|LCMS]] reads, "Hence we warn against Unitarianism, which in our country has to a great extent impenetrated the sects and is being spread particularly also through the influence of the lodges."<ref>See [http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=564 Brief Statement was adopted as LCMS doctrine in 1932, and from time to time has been adopted by other Lutherans] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514030409/http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=564 |date=14 May 2008 }}</ref> A 1958 report from the publishing house of the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]] states that, "Masonry is guilty of idolatry. Its worship and prayers are idol worship. The Masons may not with their hands have made an idol out of gold, silver, wood or stone, but they created one with their own mind and reason out of purely human thoughts and ideas. The latter is an idol no less than the former."<ref>Report of the Lutheran Church, ''The Northwestern Lutheran'', p. 281, 31 August 1988.</ref>

The largest organization of Lutheran churches around the world are the [[Lutheran World Federation]] (LWF), the [[Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum]], the [[International Lutheran Council]] (ILC), and the [[Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference]] (CELC). These organizations together account for the great majority of Lutheran denominations. The [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod|LCMS]] and the [[Lutheran Church–Canada]] are members of the ILC. The [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod|WELS]] and [[Evangelical Lutheran Synod|ELS]] are members of the CELC. Many Lutheran churches are not affiliated with the LWF, the ILC or the CELC: The congregations of the [[Church of the Lutheran Confession]] (CLC) are affiliated with their mission organizations in Canada, India, Nepal, Myanmar, and many African nations; and those affiliated with the [[Church of the Lutheran Brethren]] are especially active doing mission work in Africa and East Asia.

The Lutheran World Federation-aligned churches do not believe that one church is singularly true in its teachings. According to this belief, Lutheranism is a reform movement rather than a movement into doctrinal correctness. As part of this, in 1999 the LWF and the Roman Catholic Church jointly issued a statement, the ''[[Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]]'', that stated that the LWF and the Catholics both agreed about certain basics of Justification and lifted certain Catholic [[anathema]]s formerly applying to the LWF member churches.{{Citation needed span|The LCMS has participated in most of the [[Lutheran-Roman Catholic dialogue|official dialogues with the Roman Catholic Church]] since shortly after the [[Second Vatican Council]], though not the one which produced the ''Joint Declaration'' and to which they were not invited. While some Lutheran theologians saw the ''Joint Declaration'' as a sign that the Catholics were essentially adopting the Lutheran position, other Lutheran theologians disagreed, claiming that, considering the public documentation of the Catholic position, this assertion does not hold up.|date=May 2017}}

Besides their intra-Lutheran arrangements, some member churches of the LWF have also declared full communion with non-Lutheran Protestant churches. The [[Porvoo Communion]] is a communion of episcopally led Lutheran and Anglican churches in Europe. Beside its membership in the Porvoo Communion, {{Citation needed span|Church of Sweden also has declared full communion with the [[Philippine Independent Church]] and the [[United Methodist Church]].|date=May 2017}} The state Protestant churches in Germany many other European countries have signed the ''Leuenberg Agreement'' to form the [[Community of Protestant Churches in Europe]]. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America has been involved in ecumenical dialogues with several denominations. The ELCA has declared [[full communion]] with multiple American Protestant churches.<ref>These include, but are not limited to the following: the [[American Provinces of the Moravian Church]], the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], the [[Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)]], the [[Reformed Church in America]], the [[United Methodist Church]], and the [[United Church of Christ]].</ref>

Although on paper the LWF churches have all declared have full communion with each other, in practice some churches within the LWF have renounced ties with specific other churches.<ref>For a similar phenomenon also currently developing, see [[Anglican realignment]].</ref> One development in this ongoing schism is the [[Global Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum]], which consists of churches and church related organizations tracing their heritage back to mainline American Lutheranism in North America, European state churches, as well as certain African churches. As of 2019, the Forum is not a full communion organization. Similar in this structure is the [[International Lutheran Council]], where issues of communion are left to the individual denominations. Not all ILC churches have declared church-fellowship with each other. In contrast, mutual church-fellowship is part of the CELC member churches, and unlike in the LWF, this is not contradicted by individual statements from any particular member church body.

[[Laestadianism|Laestadians]] within certain European state churches maintain close ties to other Laestadians, often called Apostolic Lutherans. Altogether, Laestadians are found in 23 countries across five continents, but there is no single organization which represents them. Laestadians operate [[Association of Peace|Peace Associations]] to coordinate their churchly efforts. Nearly all are located in Europe, although they there are 15 combined in North America, [[Ecuador]], [[Togo]], and Kenya.

By contrast, the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference and International Lutheran Council as well as some unaffiliated denominations such as the Church of the Lutheran Confession and North American Laestadians maintain that the orthodox confessional Lutheran churches are the only churches with completely correct doctrine. They teach that while other Christian churches teach partially orthodox doctrine and have true Christians as members, the doctrines of those churches contain significant errors. More conservative Lutherans strive to maintain historical distinctiveness while emphasizing doctrinal purity alongside Gospel-motivated outreach. They claim that LWF Lutherans are practicing ''"fake ecumenism"'' by desiring church fellowship outside of actual unity of teaching.<ref>see [http://www.mtio.com/articles/aissar39.htm Ecumenism: Facts and Illusions] by Kurt E. Marquart for a short explanation of the modern ecumenism movement from a Confessional Lutheran perspective</ref>

Although not an "ecumenical" movement in the formal sense, in the 1990s influences from the [[megachurch]]es of American evangelicalism have become somewhat common. Many of the largest Lutheran congregations in the United States have been heavily influenced by these "progressive Evangelicals". These influences are sharply criticized by some Lutherans as being foreign to orthodox Lutheran beliefs.<ref>See scholarly articles on the [http://www.wlsessays.net/subject/C/Church+Growth+Movement Church Growth Movement] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727234431/http://www.wlsessays.net/subject/C/Church+Growth+Movement |date=27 July 2011 }} from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library and [http://www.ctsfw.edu/library/files/pb/818 Implications of the Church Growth Movement for Lutherans: Possibilities and Concerns] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060314085030/http://www.ctsfw.edu/library/files/pb/818 |date=14 March 2006 }} by Harold L. Senkbeil as examples of criticism from confessional Lutherans</ref>

===Polity===
[[File:Das Vaterunser 2 Lucas Cranach d A.jpg|thumb|''Hallowed be Thy Name'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] illustrates a Lutheran pastor preaching Christ crucified. During the Reformation and afterwards, many churches did not have pews, so people would stand or sit on the floor. The elderly might be given a chair or stool.]]
Lutheran [[Ecclesiastical polity|polity]] varies depending on influences. Although [[:s:Augsburg Confession#Article XIV: Of Ecclesiastical Order.|Article XIV]] of the ''Augsburg Confession'' mandates that one must be "properly called" to preach or administer the Sacraments, some Lutherans have a broad view of on what constitutes this and thus allow lay preaching or students still studying to be pastors someday to consecrate the Lord's Supper.<ref>For some opinions and historical discussion from someone who takes a broader view, see [https://essays.wls.wels.net/bitstream/handle/123456789/3205/MaaskeCall.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y What is a call?: or, When is a call a call, and who makes it such?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412074557/https://essays.wls.wels.net/bitstream/handle/123456789/3205/MaaskeCall.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |date=12 April 2019 }} By Alfred H. Maaske</ref> Despite considerable diversity, Lutheran polity trends in a geographically predictable manner in Europe, with episcopal governance to the north and east but blended and consistorial-presbyterian type synodical governance in Germany.

====Scandinavia====
[[File:Ärkebiskopsvigning.jpg|thumb|[[Nathan Söderblom]] is ordained as archbishop of the Church of Sweden in 1914. Although Swedish Lutherans boast of an unbroken line of ordinations going back prior to the Reformation, the [[Pope#Official list of titles|bishops of Rome]] do not recognize such ordinations as valid.]]
To the north in Scandinavia, the population was more insulated from the influence and politics of the Reformation and thus the Church of Sweden (which at the time included Finland) retained the [[Apostolic succession#Lutheran claims to apostolic succession|Apostolic succession]],<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SLlKBAAAQBAJ&q=%22Church+of+Iceland%22+%22Apostolic+Succession%22&pg=PA140 | title = Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism | last1 = Gassman | first1 = Günther | last2 = Larson | first2 = Duane H. | last3 = Olderburg | first3 = Mark W. | edition = 2nd | year = 2011 | publisher = The Scarecrow Press, Inc.| isbn = 9780810874824 }}</ref> although they did not consider it essential for valid sacraments as the [[Donatists]] did in the fourth and fifth centuries and the Roman Catholics do today. Recently, the Swedish succession was introduced into all of the [[Porvoo Communion]] churches, all of which have an episcopal polity. Although the Lutheran churches did not require this or change their doctrine, this was important in order for more strictly high church Anglican individuals to feel comfortable recognizing their sacraments as valid. The occasional ordination of a bishop by a priest was not necessarily considered an invalid ordination in the Middle Ages, so the alleged break in the line of succession in the other Nordic Churches would have been considered a violation of canon law rather than an invalid ordination at the time. Moreover, there are no consistent records detailing pre-Reformation ordinations prior to the 12th century.<ref>''Das kirchliche Amt in apostolischer Nachfolge''. In: Dorothea Sattler, Gunther Wenz: ''Das kirchliche Amt in apostolischer Nachfolge. Volume 3: Verständigungen und Differenzen''. Herder/ Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Freiburg and Göttingen 2008. {{ISBN|3-451-29943-7}}, p. 167–267, and p. 266.</ref>

In the far north of the Scandinavian peninsula are the [[Sámi people#Laestadius|Sámi people]], some of which practice a form of Lutheranism called Apostolic Lutheranism, or [[Laestadianism]] due to the efforts of [[Lars Levi Laestadius]]. However, others are [[Sámi people#Religion|Orthodox in religion]]. Some Apostolic Lutherans consider their movement as part of an [[Laestadianism#"Unbroken line of living Christianity"|unbroken line down from the Apostles]]. In areas where Apostolic Lutherans have their own bishops apart from other Lutheran church organizations, the bishops wield more practical authority than Lutheran clergy typically do. In Russia, Laestadians of Lutheran background cooperate with the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Ingria|Ingrian]] church, but since Laestadianism is an interdenominational movement, some are Eastern Orthodox. Eastern Orthodox Laestadians are known as [[:ru:Ушковайзет|Ushkovayzet]] (article is in Russian).<ref>[http://uralistica.com/profiles/blogs/karelskoe-religioznoe Karelian religious movement Uskhovayzet]</ref>

====Eastern Europe and Asian Russia====
[[File:Spb 06-2012 Nevsky various 06.jpg|thumb|[[Lutheran Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul]] in [[Saint Petersburg]]]]
Although historically Pietism had a significant influence on the understanding of the ministry among Lutherans in the [[Russian Empire]],{{efn|See [[:ru:Вюст, Эдуард|Edward Wust]] and [[:ru:Вюстизм|Wustism]] in the Russian Wikipedia for more on this.}} today nearly all [[Russia]]n and [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] Lutherans are influenced by Eastern Orthodox polity. In their culture, giving a high degree of respect and authority to their bishops is necessary for their faith to be seen as legitimate and not sectarian.<ref>[https://www.sonntagsblatt.de/artikel/kirche/ihre-gemeinde-ist-annulliert Kirche weltweit Ukraine: "Ihre Gemeinde ist annulliert"] 18.09.2016 by Von Helmut Frank]</ref> In [[Russia]], lines of succession between bishops and the canonical authority between their present-day hierarchy is also carefully maintained in order to legitimize the existing Lutheran churches as present day successors of the former Lutheran Church of the Russian Empire originally authorized by [[Catherine the Great]]. This allows for the post-Soviet repatriation of Lutheran church buildings to local congregations on the basis of this historical connection.<ref>[https://logia.org/pdf-back-issues/15-1pdf-lutheranism-in-asia A New "Old" Lutheran Church in Asian Russia] by Alexei Streltsov, in Logia, Epiphany 2006: Volume 15, Number 1</ref>

====Germany====
[[File:KirchenordnungSHA.jpg|thumb|The [[Schwäbisch Hall]] Church Order in 1543]]
In [[Germany]], several dynamics encouraged Lutherans to maintain a different form of polity. First, due to de facto practice during the [[Nuremberg Religious Peace]] the subsequent legal principal of [[Cuius regio, eius religio]] in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, German states were officially either Catholic or "Evangelical" (that is, Lutheran under the ''Augsburg Confession''). In some areas both Catholic and Lutheran churches were permitted to co-exist. Because German-speaking Catholic areas were nearby, Catholic-leaning Christians were able to emigrate and there was less of an issue with Catholics choosing to live as "[[crypto-papist]]s" in Lutheran areas. Although Reformed-leaning Christians were not allowed to have churches, Melancthon wrote ''[[Augsburg Confession Variata]]'' which some used to claim legal protection as "Evangelical" churches. Many chose to live as [[crypto-Calvinists]] either with or without the protection offered by the ''Variata'', but this did not make their influence go away, and as a result the Protestant church in Germany as of 2017 was only about ~40% Lutheran, with most of the rest being United Protestant, a combination of Lutheran and Reformed beliefs and practices.<ref name=EKD18>[https://www.ekd.de/ekd_de/ds_doc/Gezaehlt_zahlen_und_fakten_2019.pdf Zahlen und Fakte zum kirchlichen Leben 2019] Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland</ref>

In terms of polity, over the 17th and 18th centuries the carefully negotiated and highly prescriptive [[Church Order (Lutheran)|church orders]] of the Reformation era gave way to a joint cooperation between state control and a Reformed-style blend of consistorial and presbyterian type synodical governance. Just as negotiations over the details in the church orders involved the laity, so did the new synodical governance. Synodical governance had already been practiced in the Reformed Netherlands prior to its adoption by Lutherans. During the formation of the modern German state, ideas about the nature of authority and the best design for governments and organizations came from the philosophies of [[Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant|Kant]] and [[Elements of the Philosophy of Right|Hegel]], further modifying the polity. When the monarchy and the sovereign governance of the church were ended in 1918, the synods took over the governance of the state churches.

====Western Hemisphere and Australia====
[[File:Ministerium Hymnal.jpg|thumb|The Pennsylvania Ministerium published this hymnal in 1803.<ref>This website has [https://hymnary.org/hymnal/HELC1865 text and midi files] for the 1865 Pennsylvania Ministerium hymnal.</ref>]]
[[File:Lighthouse Lutheran Church in Freedom.jpg|thumb|Lighthouse Lutheran Church, an LCMC congregation in [[Freedom, Pennsylvania]]]]
During the period of the emigration, Lutherans took their existing ideas about polity with them across the ocean,<ref>Abdel Ross Wentz (1954), ''A Basic History of Lutheranism in America'', Philadelphia, Pa., p. 41</ref><ref>Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), ''History of Religion in the United States'', Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 6, 140</ref> though with the exception of the early Swedish Lutherans immigrants of the New Sweden colony who accepted the rule of the Anglican bishops and became part of the established church, they now had to fund churches on their own. This increased the congregationalist dynamic in the blended consistorial and presbyterian type synodical governance. The first organized church body of Lutherans in America was the [[Pennsylvania Ministerium]], which used Reformed style synodical governance over the 18th and 19th centuries. Their contribution to the development of polity was that smaller synods could in turn form a larger body, also with synodical governance, but without losing their lower level of governance. As a result, the smaller synods gained unprecedented flexibility to join, leave, merge, or stay separate, all without the hand of the state as had been the case in Europe.

During their 19th-century persecution, Old Lutheran, defined as scholastic and orthodox believers, were left in a conundrum. Resistance to authority was traditionally considered disobedience, but, under the circumstances, upholding orthodox doctrine and historical practice was considered by the government disobedience. However, the doctrine of the [[lesser magistrate]] allowed clergy to legitimately resist the state and even leave. Illegal free churches were set up in Germany and mass emigration occurred. For decades the new churches were mostly dependent on the free churches to send them new ministerial candidates for ordination. These new church bodies also employed synodical governance, but tended to exclude Hegelianism in their constitutions, due to its incompatibility with the doctrine of the lesser magistrates. In contrast to Hegelianism where authority flows in from all levels, Kantianism presents authority proceeding only from the top down, hence the need for a lesser magistrate to become the new top magistrate.

Over the 20th and 21st centuries, some Lutheran bodies have adopted a more congregationalist approach, such as the [[Protes'tant Conference]] and the [[Lutheran Congregations in Mission for Christ]], or LCMC. The LCMC formed due to a church split after the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America signed an [[Called to Common Mission|agreement]] with the Episcopal Church to start ordaining all of their new bishops into the Episcopalian apostolic succession. In other words, this meant that new ELCA bishops, at least at first, would be jointly ordained by Anglican bishops as well as Lutheran bishops so that the more strict Episcopalians (i.e., Anglo-Catholics) would recognize their sacraments as valid. This was offensive to some in the ELCA at the time because of the implications this practice would have on the teachings of the [[Theology of Martin Luther#Universal priesthood of the baptized|priesthood of all believers]] and the nature of ordination.

Some Lutheran churches permit dual-rostering.<ref>For example, the single Lutheran church on [[Guam]] is a member of the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Congregations in Mission for Christ. See [http://www.lutheranchurchofguam.org/blog/?page_id=890 Lutheran Church of Guam History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717115937/http://www.lutheranchurchofguam.org/blog/?page_id=890 |date=17 July 2020 }}</ref> Situations like this one where a church or church body belongs to multiple larger organizations that do not have ties are termed "triangular fellowship". Another variant is independent Lutheran churches, although for some independent churches the clergy are members of a larger denomination. In other cases, a congregation may belong to a synod, but the pastor may be unaffiliated. In the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Lutheran Church of Australia,<ref>[https://researchbank.acu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1222&context=theses Legitimacy, authority and transition in the public office of the ministry in the Lutheran Church of Australia] by Grulke, David. 2 vols. (2007), thesis, [[Australian Catholic University]]</ref> the Wisconsin Synod, the Evangelical Lutheran Synod, the Church of the Lutheran Confession, and the Missouri Synod, teachers at parochial schools are considered to be ministers of religion, with the latter defending this before the [[Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church & School v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission|Supreme Court in 2012]]. However, differences remain in the precise status of their teachers.<ref>One example of these differences are those [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod#Relationship with other Lutheran bodies|between the Missouri and Wisconsin Synods]].</ref>