Ancient Rome

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of ancient Rome}}
[[File:Seven Hills of Rome.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[seven hills of Rome]]]]
Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on [[Seven hills of Rome|seven hills]]. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the [[Colosseum]], the [[Trajan's Forum]] and the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]]. It had [[Roman theatre (structure)|theatres]], [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasiums]], marketplaces, functional sewers, [[thermae|bath complexes]] complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]]. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to [[Roman villa|country villas]].

In the capital city of Rome, there were [[Roman Empire|imperial]] [[House|residences]] on the elegant [[Palatine Hill]], from which the word ''palace'' derives. The low [[Plebs|plebeian]] and middle [[Equestrian order|equestrian]] classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or [[insulae]], which were almost like modern [[ghetto]]s. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were often centred upon [[Collegium (ancient Rome)|collegia]] or [[taberna]]. These people, provided with a [[Grain supply to the city of Rome|free supply of grain]], and entertained by [[Gladiator|gladiatorial games]], were enrolled as [[Patronage in ancient Rome|clients of patrons]] among the upper class [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]], whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld.

===Language===
{{Main|Latin}}
The native [[language]] of the Romans was [[Latin]], an [[Italic languages|Italic language]] the [[Latin grammar|grammar of which]] relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of [[affix]]es attached to [[word stem]]s.<ref>[http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/latol-0-X.html Latin Online: Series Introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429221355/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/latol-0-X.html |date=29 April 2015 }} by Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum. Linguistics Research Center. The University of Texas at Austin. 15 February 2007. Retrieved 1 April 2007.</ref> Its [[Latin alphabet|alphabet]] was based on the [[Old Italic alphabet|Etruscan alphabet]], which was in turn based on the [[Greek alphabet]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Calvert |first=J.B. |date=8 August 1999 |title=The Latin Alphabet |url=http://www.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/latalph.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403040205/http://www.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/latalph.htm |archive-date=3 April 2007 |website=University of Denver}}</ref> Although surviving [[Latin literature]] consists almost entirely of [[Classical Latin]], an artificial and highly stylised and polished [[literary language]] from the 1st century BC, the [[spoken language]] of the Roman Empire was [[Vulgar Latin]], which significantly differed from Classical Latin in [[grammar]] and [[vocabulary]], and eventually in pronunciation.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070810033726/http://classics.lss.wisc.edu/courses/Classical_Latin_Supplement.pdf Classical Latin Supplement]. p. 2. Retrieved 2 April 2007.</ref> Speakers of Latin could understand both until the 7th century when spoken Latin began to diverge so much that 'Classical' or 'Good Latin' had to be learned as a second language.<ref>József Herman, ''Vulgar Latin'', English translation 2000, pp. 109–114 {{ISBN|978-0271020013}}</ref>

While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, [[Greek language|Greek]] came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a practice that first started during the [[punic wars]].{{sfnm|Rochette|2023|1p=263,268|Rochette|2018|2p=114-115,118}} In the eastern part of the Roman Empire (and later the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]), Latin was never able to replace Greek, a legacy of the [[Hellenistic period]].{{Sfn|Rochette|2018|pp=108}} Justinian would be the last emperor to use Latin in government and marks when Greek officially took over.{{sfnm|1a1=Adkins|1a2=Adkins|1y=1998|1p=203|2a1=Kaldellis|2y=2023|2p=289|3a1=Rochette|3y=2011|3p=562|4a1=Rochette|4y=2023|4p=283}} The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into many distinct [[Romance languages]].

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in ancient Rome|Roman mythology|Roman temple}}
{{Further|Constantine the Great and Christianity|State church of the Roman Empire}}
[[File:Pompeii - Casa dei Vettii - Ixion.jpg|thumb|Punishment of [[Ixion]]: in the center is [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] holding the [[caduceus]] and on the right [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]] sits on her throne. Behind her [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]] stands and gestures. On the left is [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]] (blond figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. [[Nephele]] sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the [[triclinium]] in the [[House of the Vettii]], [[Pompeii]], [[Pompeian Styles|Fourth Style]] (60–79 AD).]]
Archaic [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]], at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans.{{Sfn|Matyszak|2003|page=24}} Unlike in [[Greek mythology]], the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called ''[[Numen|numina]]''. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own ''[[genius (mythology)|genius]]'', or divine soul. During the [[Roman Republic]], [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]] was organised under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]'', was the head of the state religion. [[Flamen]]s took care of the cults of various gods, while [[augur]]s were trusted with taking the [[auspice]]s. The [[Rex Sacrorum|sacred king]] took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman Empire, deceased emperors who had ruled well were deified by their successors and the Senate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Edward Gibbon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvIbFyM1s54C&pg=PA91 |title=The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire |publisher=printed for J.J. Tourneisen |year=1787 |page=91}}; {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a75PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA644 |title=The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge |publisher=Encyclopedia Americana Corporation |year=1919 |page=644}}</ref> and the formalised [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|imperial cult]] became increasingly prominent.

As contact with the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] increased, the old [[Roman mythology|Roman gods]] became increasingly associated with [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek gods]].{{Sfn|Willis|2000|pages=166–168}} Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.{{Sfn|Willis|2000}}

Beginning with Emperor [[Nero]] in the 1st century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some point, being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor [[Diocletian]], the [[persecution of Christians]] reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor, [[Constantine I]], with the signing of the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391&nbsp;AD by an edict of Emperor [[Theodosius I]].<ref>[http://www.roman-emperors.org/theo1.htm Theodosius I (379–395 AD)] by David Woods. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 2 February 1999. Retrieved 4 April 2007.</ref>

===Ethics and morality===
Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilisations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute.<ref name="HuffPo: Bread">{{Cite news |last=Astore, William |title=Bread and Circuses in Rome and America |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/william-astore/bread-and-circuses-in-rom_b_3414248.html |access-date=11 August 2017}}</ref> Whereas modern societies consider [[compassion]] a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87_ImL1ryQ8C |title=Annual Editions: Western Civilization |publisher=McGraw-Hill/Dushkin |year=2002 |edition=12th |volume=1 |page=68 |quote=... where compassion was regarded as a moral defect ...}}</ref><ref name="HuffPo: Bread"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson, Michael Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkU9IuW1IuAC |title=Look Back to Get Ahead: Life Lessons from History's Heroes |publisher=Arcade Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=978-1559707275 |page=174 |quote=Gladatorial games were popular because the Romans actually believed that compassion was a vice and a weakness}}</ref> Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (''virtus''), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (''moderatio''), forgiveness and understanding (''clementia''), fairness (''severitas''), and loyalty (''[[pietas]]'').<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agyhCwAAQBAJ |title=Daily Life in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |year=2016 |isbn=978-1585107964 |editor-last=Harvey, Brian K. |pages=21–28}}</ref>

Roman society had well-established and restrictive norms related to sexuality, though as with many societies, the lion's share of the responsibilities fell on women. Women were generally expected to be monogamous having only a single husband during their life (''univira''), though this was much less regarded by the elite, especially under the empire. Women were expected to be modest in public avoiding any provocative appearance and to demonstrate absolute fidelity to their husbands (''pudicitia''). Indeed, wearing a veil was a common expectation to preserve modesty. Sex outside of marriage was generally frowned upon for men and women and indeed was made illegal during the imperial period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Langlands, Rebecca |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBLnttutuOMC |title=Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0521859431 |pages=3–20}}</ref> Nevertheless, prostitution was an accepted and regulated practice.<ref name="Dillon">{{Cite book |last=Mathew Dillon and Lynda Garland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMNL0jqhygoC |title=Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar |publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2005 |isbn=978-0415224598 |page=382}}</ref>

Public demonstrations of death, violence, and brutality were used as a source of entertainment in Roman communities; however it was also a way to maintain social order, demonstrate power, and signify communal unity.

===Art, music and literature===
{{Main|Roman art|Latin literature|Music of ancient Rome|Roman sculpture|Theatre of ancient Rome|Art collection in ancient Rome}}
{{See also|Ancient Rome (painting)}}
[[File:Villa of the Mysteries (Pompeii) - frescos 02.jpg|thumb|Frescoes from the [[Villa of the Mysteries]] in [[Pompeii]], Italy, [[Roman art]]work dated to the mid-1st century BC]]
[[File:P. Fannius Synistor anagoria links.JPG|right|thumb|Woman playing a ''[[kithara]]'', from the [[Villa Boscoreale]], Italy, circa 40–30 BC]]
Roman painting styles show [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] influences, and surviving examples are primarily [[fresco]]es used to adorn the walls and ceilings of [[Villa rustica|country villas]], though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on wood, [[ivory]], and other materials.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=350–352}}<ref name="MetstuffonRpaint">[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropt/hd_ropt.htm Roman Painting] from Timeline of Art History. Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004–10. Retrieved 22 April 2007.</ref> Several examples of Roman painting have been found at [[Pompeii]], and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into [[Pompeian Styles|four periods]].

The first style of Roman painting was practised from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of [[marble]] and [[masonry]], though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters.
The second style began during the early 1st century BC and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of [[Augustus]] (27&nbsp;BC&nbsp;– 14&nbsp;AD), and rejected the [[Realism (visual arts)|realism]] of the second style in favour of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a [[monochrome]] background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns.

Portrait sculpture used youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and [[idealism]]. During the [[Antonines|Antonine]] and [[Severan dynasty|Severan]] periods, ornate hair and bearding, with deep cutting and drilling, became popular. Advancements were also made in [[Relief|relief sculptures]], usually depicting Roman victories.

[[Music of ancient Rome|Roman music]] was largely based on [[Music of ancient Greece|Greek music]], and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life.<ref name="iClassics">{{Cite book |first1=Donald Jay |last1=Grout |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ise5AAAAIAAJ |title=A history of western music |first2=Claude V. |last2=Palisca |date=1988 |publisher=Norton |isbn=978-0393956276 |access-date=31 May 2012}}</ref> In the [[Military of ancient Rome|Roman military]], musical instruments such as the ''[[wikt:tuba#Latin|tuba]]'' (a long trumpet) or the ''[[Cornu (horn)|cornu]]'' were used to give various commands, while the ''[[buccina]]'' (possibly a trumpet or horn) and the ''[[lituus]]'' (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=89}} Music was used in the [[Roman amphitheatre]]s between fights and in the ''[[odeon (building)|odea]]'', and in these settings is known to have featured the ''cornu'' and the ''[[hydraulis]]'' (a type of water organ).{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=349–350}} Most religious rituals featured musical performances.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=300}} Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies.<ref name=iClassics/>

The [[graffiti]], [[brothel]]s, paintings, and sculptures found in [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] suggest that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.{{Sfn|Grant|2005|pages=130–134}}

==== Literature and Libraries ====
[[Latin literature]] was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical [[Epic poetry|epics]] telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and [[tragedy]].

Ancient Rome's literary contributions are still recognized today and the works by ancient Roman authors were available in bookshops as well as in public and private libraries. Many scholars and statesmen of Ancient Rome cultivated private libraries that were used both as demonstrations of knowledge and displays of wealth and power.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Dix |first=T. Keith |date=1994 |title="Public Libraries" in Ancient Rome: Ideology and Reality |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25542662 |journal=Libraries & Culture |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=282–296 |jstor=25542662 |issn=0894-8631}}</ref> Private libraries were so commonly encountered that Vitruvius wrote about where libraries should be situated within a villa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vitruvius Pollio, The Ten Books on Architecture, BOOK VI, CHAPTER IV: THE PROPER EXPOSURES OF THE DIFFERENT ROOMS, section 1 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0073:book=6:chapter=4:section=1 |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> In addition to numerous private libraries, the Roman Empire saw the establishment of early public libraries.

Although Julius Caesar had intended to establish public libraries to further establish Rome as a great cultural center like Athens and Alexandria, he died before this was accomplished. Caesar's former lieutenant, [[Gaius Asinius Pollio]], took up the project and opened the first public library in Rome in the [[Atrium Libertatis]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXV. AN ACCOUNT OF PAINTINGS AND COLOURS., CHAP. 2. (2.)—THE HONOUR ATTACHED TO PORTRAITS. |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+35.2&redirect=true |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Emperors Augustus, Tiberius, [[Vespasian]], Domitian, and Trajan also founded or expanded public libraries in Rome during their reigns.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Library - Ancient Rome, Collections, Archives {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/library/Rome |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Houston |first=George W. |date=2008 |title=Tiberius and the Libraries: Public Book Collections and Library Buildings in the Early Roman Empire |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/15/article/247571 |journal=Libraries & the Cultural Record |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=247–269 |doi=10.1353/lac.0.0032 |s2cid=161471143 |issn=2166-3033}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Staikos |first=Konstantinos Sp |title=The History of the Library in Western Civilization, Volume II: From Cicero to Hadrian: The Roman World from the Beginnings of Latin Literature to the Monumental and Private Libraries of the Empire |date=2021-10-25 |url=https://brill.com/display/title/26053 |work=The History of the Library in Western Civilization, Volume II |access-date=2023-11-29 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004473508 |isbn=978-90-04-47350-8}}</ref> These included the [[Ulpian Library]] in Trajan's Forum and libraries in the [[Temple of Apollo Palatinus]], the [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]] in the Roman Forum, the [[Temple of Divus Augustus]], which was dedicated to Minerva when it was &nbsp;rebuilt under Emperor Domitian's orders.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=The Roman forum: its history and its monuments / Ch. Huelsen ; translated by Jesse Benedict Carter. |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/njp.32101076187390?urlappend=%3Bseq=19 |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=HathiTrust | hdl=2027/njp.32101076187390?urlappend=%3Bseq=19 |language=en}}</ref> Some of these, including the library at the Temple of Divus Augustus also served as archives.<ref name=":2" /> By the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city of Rome had more than two dozen public libraries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boyd |first=C. E. |title=Public Libraries and Literary Culture in Ancient Rome |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1915 |isbn=9781164833970}}</ref> Rome was not the only city to benefit from such institutions. As the Roman Empire spread, public libraries were established in other major cities and cultural centers including Ephesos, Athens, and [[Timgad]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=Libraries in the Ancient World |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1428/libraries-in-the-ancient-world/ |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pfeiffer |first=Homer F. |date=1931 |title=The Roman Library at Timgad |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238558 |journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome |volume=9 |pages=157–165 |doi=10.2307/4238558 |jstor=4238558 |issn=0065-6801}}</ref>

Most public libraries of this time were not built expressly for that purpose, instead sharing space in temples, baths, and other community buildings. In addition to serving as repositories for books, public libraries hosted orations by authors.<ref name=":1" /> These recitations served as social gatherings and allowed those who may not be literate to be entertained by poetry, epics, philosophical treatises, and other works.

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Ancient Roman cuisine|Ancient Rome and wine|Food and dining in the Roman Empire}}
[[File:Mosaico di un giovane come mese di giugno, III secolo dc..JPG|thumb|A boy with a platter of fruits and what may be a bucket of crabs, in a kitchen with fish and [[squid]], on the June panel from a 3rd-century mosaic depicting the months, in the [[Hermitage Museum]] in [[St Petersburg]], [[Russia]]<ref>J. Carson Webster, ''The Labors of the Months in Antique and Mediaeval Art to the End of the Twelfth Century,'' Studies in the Humanities 4 (Northwestern University Press, 1938), p. 128. In the collections of the [[Hermitage Museum]].</ref>]]
Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilisation. Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture, the political changes from [[Roman Kingdom|Kingdom]] to [[Roman Republic|Republic]] to [[Roman Empire|Empire]], and the Empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning the differences between social classes were relatively small, but disparities evolved with the Empire's growth. Men and women drank wine with their meals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Civitello |first=Linda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uaRl9ZUtBYkC&q=cuisine%20of%20ancient%20rome&pg=PR8 |title=Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0470403716 |language=en}}</ref>

The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of [[Italian cuisine|modern Italian cooking]]. [[Pliny the Elder]] discussed more than 30 varieties of [[olive]], 40 kinds of pear, [[Ficus|figs]] (native and imported from Africa and the eastern provinces), and a wide variety of vegetables, including carrots (of different colours, but not orange<ref>Phyllis Pray Bober, ''Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy'', University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 188.</ref>) as well as [[celery]], garlic, some [[flower bulb]]s, [[cabbage]] and other [[brassica]]s (such as [[kale]] and [[broccoli]]), lettuce, [[endive]], onion, [[leek]], [[asparagus]], [[radish]]es, [[turnip]]s, [[parsnip]]s, [[beet]]s, [[green peas]], [[chard]], [[cardoon]]s, olives, and [[cucumber]].<ref name="PatrickFaas">Patrick Faas, ''Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome'', University of Chicago Press (2005), p. 209.</ref>

However, some foods now considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used.<ref name="PhyllisPray">Phyllis Pray Bober, ''Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy'', University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 187.</ref> In particular, [[spinach]] and [[eggplant]] (aubergine) were introduced later from the [[Arab world]], and tomatoes, potatoes, [[capsicum]] peppers, and maize (the modern source of [[polenta]])<ref name="PatrickFaas"/> only appeared in Europe following the discovery of the [[New World]] and the [[Columbian Exchange]].<ref name="PhyllisPray"/> The Romans knew of rice, but it was very rarely available to them. There were also few [[citrus]] fruits.<ref name="PhyllisPray"/>

Butcher's meat such as beef was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was pork, especially [[sausage]]s.<ref name="MaguelonneToussaintSamat">Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, ''A History of Food'', John Wiley & Sons (2009), p. 93.</ref> Fish was more common than meat, with a sophisticated [[aquaculture]] and large-scale industries devoted to [[oyster farming]]. The Romans also engaged in [[Heliciculture|snail farming]] and oak grub farming. Some fish were greatly esteemed and fetched high prices, such as [[mullet (fish)|mullet]] raised in the fishery at [[Cosa]], and "elaborate means were invented to assure its freshness".<ref name="John">John E. Stambaugh, ''The Ancient Roman City'', JHU Press (1988), p. 148.</ref>

Traditionally, a breakfast called ''ientaculum''<ref name="ArtmanJohnAncient">Artman, John:"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", page 26, Good Apple, 1991.</ref> was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans ate ''[[cena]]'',<ref name="ArtmanJohnAncient"/> the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper called ''vesperna''.<ref name="Artman, John page 26">Artman, John::"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", p. 26, Good Apple,1991.</ref> With the increased importation of foreign foods, the ''cena'' grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while the ''vesperna''<ref name="Artman, John page 26"/> was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day meal ''prandium'' became a light meal to hold one over until ''cena''.<ref name="ArtmanJohnAncient"/>

===Fashion===
{{see also|Clothing in ancient Rome}}
[[File:Mosaico di cristo in trono tra gli apostoli e le ss. prudenziana e prassede, 410 dc ca. 06.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Detail of a [[Paleochristian]] [[Roman mosaic]] from the basilica of [[Santa Pudenziana]] in Rome, c. 410 AD, depicting Saint [[Pudentiana]]]]

The [[toga]], a common garment during the era of Julius Caesar, was gradually abandoned by all social classes of the Empire. At the early 4th century, the toga had become just a garment worn by senators in Senate and ceremonial events. At the 4th century, the toga was replaced by the ''[[paenula]]'' (a garment similar to a poncho) as the everyday garment of the Romans, from the lower classes to the upper classes. Another garment that was popular among the Romans in the later years of the [[Western Roman Empire]] was the ''[[Pallium (Roman cloak)|pallium]]'', which was mostly worn by philosophers and scholars in general. Due to external influences, mainly from the Germanic peoples, the Romans adopted [[tunic]]s very similar to those used by the Germanic peoples with whom they interacted in the final years of the Western Empire, also adopted trousers and hats like the [[Pileus (hat)|''pileus pannonicus'']]. At the Late Empire the ''[[paludamentum]]'' (a type of military clothing) was used only by the Emperor of Rome (since the reign of [[Augustus]], the first emperor) while the [[dalmatic]] (also used by the Christian clergy) began to spread throughout the empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/dalmatica/|title=Dalmatica|access-date=12 August 2023|language=it}}</ref>

===Games and recreation===
{{See also| History of physical training and fitness}}
[[File:Nennig Roman Villa and Mosaics - 51134391753.jpg|thumb|[[Gladiator]] combat was strictly a spectator sport. This [[Roman mosaic|mosaic]] shows combatants and referee, from the [[Roman villa|villa]] at [[Nennig]], Germany, {{Circa|2nd}}–3rd century AD.]]
[[File:Villa romana bikini girls.JPG|right|thumb|The "[[bikini]] girls" [[mosaic]], showing women playing sports, from the [[Villa Romana del Casale]], Italy, Roman province of [[Sicilia (Roman province)|Sicilia]], 4th century AD]]
The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise. Play for boys was supposed to prepare them for active military service, such as [[jumping]], [[wrestling]], [[boxing]], and [[racing]].{{Sfn|Casson|1998|pages=[https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass/page/98 98–108]}} In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting.<ref name="SPQRonline">{{Cite web |year=1998 |title=Daily Life: Entertainment |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/26602/entertainment.htm#leisure |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430025620/http://library.thinkquest.org/26602/entertainment.htm |archive-date=30 April 2007 |website=SPQR Online}}</ref> The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling [[American handball|handball]].{{Sfn|Casson|1998|pages=[https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass/page/98 98–108]}} [[Dice game]]s, [[board game]]s, and [[Gambling|gamble games]] were popular pastimes.{{Sfn|Casson|1998|pages=[https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass/page/98 98–108]}} For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=350–352}} The majority, less well-off, sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronising [[tavern]]s.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=350–352}}Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as [[leapfrog]].<ref name=SPQRonline/>{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=350–352}}

Public games and spectacles were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and court popular approval; in Rome or its provinces, this usually meant the emperor or his governors. Venues in Rome and the provinces were developed specifically for public games. Rome's [[Colisseum]] was built in 70 AD under the Roman emperor Vespasian and opened in 80 AD to host other events and [[gladiator]]ial combats. Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour. They sometimes fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd. Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had been condemned to public death.

[[Chariot racing]] was extremely popular among all classes. In Rome, these races were usually held at the [[Circus Maximus]], which had been purpose-built for chariot and horse-racing and, as Rome's largest public place, was also used for festivals and animal shows.<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/circusmaximus/circusmaximus.html Circus Maximus]. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> It could seat around 150,000 people;<ref>John Humphrey, ''Roman circuses: arenas for chariot racing'', University of California Press, 1986, p. 216.</ref> The charioteers raced in teams, identified by their colours; some aficionados were members of extremely, even violently partisan circus factions.