Excommunication

== Islam ==
{{Main|Takfir}}
Since there has been no universally and univocally recognized religious authority among the many [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic denominations]] that have emerged throughout history, papal excommunication has no exact equivalent in Islam, at least insofar as the attitudes of any conflicting religious authorities with regard to an individual or another sect are judged to be coordinate, not subordinate to one another. Nonetheless, condemning heterodoxy and punishing heretics through [[shunning]] and [[ostracism]] is comparable with the practice in non-Catholic Christian faiths.

Islamic theologians commonly employ two terms when describing measurements to be taken against schismatics and heresy: [[wikt:هجر|هَجْر]] (''hajr'', "abandoning") and [[wikt:تكفير|تَكْفِير]] (''[[takfīr]]'', "making or declaring to be a nonbeliever"). The former (هَجْر, ''hajr'') signifies the act of abandoning somewhere (such as migration, as in the Islamic prophet's journey out of Mecca, which is called [[Hegira|al-Hijra]] ("the (e)migration")) or someone (used in the Qur'an in the case of disciplining a dissonant or disobedient wife<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://quran.com/4/34|title = Surah An-Nisa – 34}}</ref> or avoiding a harmful person<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://quran.com/73/10|title = Surah Al-Muzzammil – 10}}</ref>). The latter (تَكْفِير, ''takfīr'') means a definitive declaration that denounces a person as a kāfir ("infidel"). However, because such a charge would entail serious consequences for the accused, who would then be deemed to be a [[wikt:مرتد|مُرْتَدّ]] (''murtadd'', "a [[backsliding|backslider]]; an apostate), less extreme denunciations, such as an accusation of [[wikt:بدعة|بِدْعَة]] (''bidʽah'', "[deviant] innovation; heresy") followed by shunning and excommunication have historically preponderated over apostasy trials.

''[[Takfīr]]'' has often been practiced through the courts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Badar|first1=Mohamed|last2=Nagata |first2=Masaki |last3=Tueni |first3=Tiphanie |date=2017|title=The Radical Application of the Islamist Concept of Takfir.|url=https://www.geopoldia.org/images/bedas-tueni2.pdf|journal=Arab Law Quarterly|volume=31|issue=2|pages=134–162|ssrn=2971764|doi=10.1163/15730255-31020044}}</ref> More recently,{{When|date=June 2009}} cases have taken place where individuals have been considered nonbelievers.{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} These decisions followed lawsuits against individuals, mainly in response to their writings that some have viewed as anti-Islamic. The most famous cases are of [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Nasr Abu Zayd]], [[Nawal El-Saadawi]], and of the [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]]. The repercussions of such cases have included divorce, since under traditional interpretations of Islamic law, Muslim women are [[Islamic marital jurisprudence|not permitted to marry]] non-Muslim men.