Science

== Society ==
{{Redirect-distinguish|Science and society|Science & Society|Sociology of scientific knowledge}}

=== Funding and policies ===
[[File:NASA-Budget-Federal.svg|thumb|300x300px|[[Budget of NASA]] as percentage of [[United States federal budget]], peaking at 4.4% in 1966 and slowly declining since|alt=see caption]]
[[Funding of science|Scientific research is often funded]] through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most [[developed country|developed countries]] is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP.<ref name="OECD2008">{{cite web |url= http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |title= Main Science and Technology Indicators&nbsp;– 2008-1 |publisher= [[OECD]] |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100215172528/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |archive-date= February 15, 2010 }}</ref> In the [[OECD]], around two-thirds of [[research and development]] in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and [[humanities]]. In the lesser-developed nations, government provides the bulk of the funds for their basic scientific research.<ref name= oecd>{{Cite book |url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |title=OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2015: Innovation for growth and society |publisher=OECD |year=2015 |isbn=978-9264239784 |page=156 |doi=10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2015-en |via=oecd-ilibrary.org |access-date=May 28, 2022 |archive-date=May 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525063455/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |url-status=live }}</ref>

Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research, such as the [[National Science Foundation]] in the United States,<ref name="j2">{{cite journal |last=Kevles |first=Daniel |year=1977 |title=The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942-1945 |journal=Isis |volume=68 |issue=241 |pages=4–26 |doi=10.1086/351711 |pmid=320157 |s2cid=32956693}}</ref> the [[National Scientific and Technical Research Council]] in Argentina,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Argentina, National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) |url=https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |access-date=May 31, 2022 |website=International Science Council |language=en-US |archive-date=May 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516220311/https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation|Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization]] in Australia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Innis |first=Michelle |date=May 17, 2016 |title=Australia to Lay Off Leading Scientist on Sea Levels |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |url-status=live |url-access=limited |access-date=May 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507080237/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |archive-date=May 7, 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> [[French National Centre for Scientific Research|National Centre for Scientific Research]] in France,<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 20, 2021 |title=Le CNRS recherche 10.000 passionnés du blob |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |access-date=May 31, 2022 |website=[[Le Figaro]] |language=fr |archive-date=April 27, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427225305/https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Max Planck Society]] in Germany,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bredow |first=Rafaela von |date=December 18, 2021 |title=How a Prestigious Scientific Organization Came Under Suspicion of Treating Women Unequally |language=en |work=Der Spiegel |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |access-date=May 31, 2022 |issn=2195-1349 |archive-date=May 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529004707/https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Spanish National Research Council|National Research Council]] in Spain.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 12, 2022 |title=En espera de una "revolucionaria" noticia sobre Sagitario A*, el agujero negro supermasivo en el corazón de nuestra galaxia |url=https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |access-date=May 31, 2022 |website=ELMUNDO |language=es |archive-date=May 13, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513185034/https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialization possibilities rather than research driven by curiosity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Anthony C. |last2=Bourne |first2=Philip E. |date=September 27, 2012 |title=Ten Simple Rules To Commercialize Scientific Research |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=e1002712 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002712 |issn=1553-734X |pmc=3459878 |pmid=23028299|bibcode=2012PLSCB...8E2712F |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Science policy]] is concerned with policies that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including [[research funding]], often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care, and environmental monitoring. Science policy sometimes refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marburger |first=John Harmen III|title=Science policy up close |date=February 10, 2015 |others=Crease, Robert P. |isbn=978-0-674-41709-0 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |oclc=875999943 |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Public policy can directly affect the funding of [[capital equipment]] and intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organizations that fund research.<ref name="bush1945" />

=== Education and awareness ===
{{Main|2 = Public awareness of science|3 = Science journalism}}
[[File:Dinosaur exhibit - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01881.JPG|thumb|250px|left|Dinosaur exhibit in the [[Houston Museum of Natural Science]]]]
[[Science education]] for the general public is embedded in the school curriculum, and is supplemented by [[YouTube in education|online pedagogical content]] (for example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science magazines and blogs. Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the [[scientific method]], units and methods of [[measurement]], [[empiricism]], a basic understanding of statistics ([[correlations]], [[Qualitative research|qualitative]] versus [[Quantitative research|quantitative]] observations, [[aggregate statistics]]), as well as a basic understanding of core scientific fields, such as [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[biology]], ecology, geology and [[computation]]. As a student advances into higher stages of [[formal education]], the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Benneworth |first1=Paul |last2=Jongbloed |first2=Ben W. |date=July 31, 2009 |title=Who matters to universities? A stakeholder perspective on humanities, arts and social sciences valorisation |journal=Higher Education |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=567–588 |doi=10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2 |issn=0018-1560 |doi-access=free|url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf }}</ref>

The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a [[scientific debate]] may require considerable expertise regarding the matter.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dickson |first=David |date=October 11, 2004 |title=Science journalism must keep a critical edge |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621053624/http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-date=June 21, 2010 |publisher=Science and Development Network}}</ref> Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even [[beat reporter]]s who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mooney |first=Chris |date=Nov–Dec 2004 |title=Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |url-status=live |magazine=Columbia Journalism Review |volume=43 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117181240/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |archive-date=January 17, 2010 |access-date=February 20, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIlwaine |first1=S. |last2=Nguyen |first2=D.A. |year=2005 |title=Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science? |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |url-status=live |journal=Australian Studies in Journalism |volume=14 |pages=41–60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |archive-date=August 1, 2008 |access-date=February 20, 2008}}</ref>

[[List of science magazines|Science magazines]] such as ''[[New Scientist]]'', ''[[Science & Vie]]'', and ''[[Scientific American]]'' cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.<ref name="pmid24312943">{{cite journal |author-last=Webb | author-first=Sarah |title=Popular science: Get the word out |journal=Nature |volume=504 |issue=7478 |pages=177–9 |date=December 2013 |pmid=24312943 |doi=10.1038/nj7478-177a |doi-access=free }}</ref> Science fiction genre, primarily [[speculative fiction]], can transmit the ideas and methods of science to the general public.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilde |first=Fran |author-link=Fran Wilde (author) |date=January 21, 2016 |title=How Do You Like Your Science Fiction? Ten Authors Weigh In On 'Hard' vs. 'Soft' SF |url=https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404025029/https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |archive-date=April 4, 2019 |access-date=April 4, 2019 |website=Tor.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines, such as literature or poetry, include the ''Creative Writing Science'' resource developed through the [[Royal Literary Fund]].<ref>{{cite web | first= Mario | last= Petrucci | url= http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm | title= Creative Writing&nbsp;– Science | access-date=April 27, 2008 | url-status=dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090106015539/http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm | archive-date= January 6, 2009 }}</ref>

=== Anti-science attitudes ===
{{main|Antiscience}}
While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community, some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are skeptical about science. Examples are the common notion that [[COVID-19]] is not a major health threat to the US (held by 39% of Americans in August 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tyson |first1=Alec |last2=Funk |first2=Cary |last3=Kennedy |first3=Brian |last4=Johnson |first4=Courtney |date=September 15, 2021 |title=Majority in U.S. Says Public Health Benefits of COVID-19 Restrictions Worth the Costs, Even as Large Shares Also See Downsides |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |access-date=August 4, 2022 |website=Pew Research Center Science & Society |language=en-US}}</ref> or the belief that [[climate change]] is not a major threat to the US (also held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Brian |title=U.S. concern about climate change is rising, but mainly among Democrats |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |access-date=August 4, 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Psychologist]]s have pointed to four factors driving rejection of scientific results:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Philipp-Muller |first1=Aviva |last2=Lee |first2=Spike W. S. |last3=Petty |first3=Richard E. |date=July 26, 2022 |title=Why are people antiscience, and what can we do about it? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=119 |issue=30 |pages=e2120755119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120755119 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9335320 |pmid=35858405|bibcode=2022PNAS..11920755P }}</ref>
* Scientific authorities are sometimes seen as inexpert, untrustworthy, or biased.
* Some [[Social exclusion|marginalized]] [[social groups]] hold anti-science attitudes, in part because these groups have often been exploited in [[Unethical human experimentation|unethical experiments]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Test of Three Theories of Anti-Science Attitudes |year=2008 |doi=10.1080/00380237.2008.10571338 |last1=Gauchat |first1=Gordon William |journal=Sociological Focus |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=337–357 |s2cid=144645723 }}</ref>
* Messages from scientists may contradict deeply-held existing beliefs or morals.
* The ''delivery'' of a scientific message may not be appropriately targeted to a recipient's learning style.
Anti-science attitudes seem to be often caused by fear of rejection in social groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Poushter |first1=Jacob |last2=Fagan |first2=Moira |last3=Gubbala |first3=Sneha |date=August 31, 2022 |title=Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |access-date=September 5, 2022 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |language=en-US}}</ref> That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change as a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than lose or jeopardize their social status.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McRaney |first=David |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1322437138 |title=How Minds Change: The Surprising Science of Belief, Opinion, and Persuasion |publisher=Portfolio/Penguin |date=2022 |isbn=978-0-593-19029-6 |location=[New York, NY] |oclc=1322437138}}</ref>

=== Politics ===
[[File:2021 Survey on existence of global warming and responsibility for climate change - bar chart.svg|alt=Result in bar graph of two questions ("Is global warming occurring?" and "Are oil/gas companies responsible?"), showing large discrepancies between American Democrats and Republicans|thumb|[[Public opinion on global warming#United States|Public opinion on global warming in the United States]] by political party<ref>{{cite news |last1=McGreal |first1=Chris |date=October 26, 2021 |title=Revealed: 60% of Americans say oil firms are to blame for the climate crisis |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026122356/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |archive-date=October 26, 2021 |quote=Source: Guardian/Vice/CCN/YouGov poll. Note: ±4% margin of error.}}</ref>|300x300px]]Attitudes towards science are often determined by political opinions and goals. Government, business and [[advocacy group]]s have been known to use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many factors can act as facets of the [[politicization of science]] such as [[anti-intellectualism]], perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business interests.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeanne |year=2017 |title=The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |url-status=dead |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=34–39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816182350/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |archive-date=August 16, 2018 |access-date=August 16, 2018}}</ref> Politicization of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasizes the uncertainty associated with the scientific evidence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bolsen |first1=Toby |last2=Druckman |first2=James N. |author2-link=James N. Druckman |year=2015 |title=Counteracting the Politicization of Science |journal=Journal of Communication |issue=65 |page=746}}</ref> Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalizing on doubt of [[scientific consensus]] have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence.<ref name="Freudenberg 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Freudenberg |first1=William F. |last2=Gramling |first2=Robert |last3=Davidson |first3=Debra J. |year=2008 |title=Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt |url=http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=78 |pages=2–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126214329/http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |archive-date=November 26, 2020 |access-date=April 12, 2020 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Examples of issues that have involved the politicization of science include the [[global warming controversy]], [[health effects of pesticides]], and [[health effects of tobacco]].<ref name="Freudenberg 2008" /><ref name="van Der Linden2017">{{cite journal |last1=van der Linden |first1=Sander |last2=Leiserowitz |first2=Anthony |last3=Rosenthal |first3=Seth |last4=Maibach |first4=Edward |year=2017 |title=Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/270860/1/global%20challenges.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Global Challenges |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=1 |doi=10.1002/gch2.201600008 |pmc=6607159 |pmid=31565263 |bibcode=2017GloCh...100008V |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404185312/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/270860/global%20challenges.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=April 4, 2020 |access-date=August 25, 2019}}</ref>