Middle Ages

===Society and economy===
{{main|Crisis of the Late Middle Ages}}

[[File:Jacquerie Navarre.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=A crowned man and soldiers watching the beheading of a man|Execution of some of the ringleaders of the {{lang|fr|[[Jacquerie]]}} revolt, from a 14th-century manuscript of the ''Chroniques de France ou de St Denis'']]

Average annual temperature was declining from around 1200, introducing the gradual transition to the [[Little Ice Age]]. Climate anomalies caused agricultural crises, culminating in the [[Great Famine of 1315–1317|Great Famine of 1315–17]].{{sfn|Hoffmann|2014|pp=323–325}} As the starving peasants slaughtered their draft animals, those who survived had to make extraordinary efforts to revive farming.{{sfn|Backman|2022|p=531}} These troubles were followed in 1346 by the [[Black Death]], a [[pandemic]] that spread throughout Europe, killing about one-third of the population. As plague continued to strike Europe regularly until 1400, the total population reduced by about {{nowrap|50 percent}}.{{refn|group=note|Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions.{{sfn|Wickham|2016|p=210}} One town, [[Lübeck]] in Germany, lost {{nowrap|90 per cent}} of its population to the Black Death.{{sfn|Singman|1999|p=189}}}}{{sfn|Wickham|2016|p=210}}

The trauma of the plague led to savage [[Black Death Jewish persecutions|pogroms against the Jews]], and the self-mortification of the [[flagellant]]s.{{sfn|Fried|2015|pp=420–423}} Peasants who survived the pandemic paid lower rents to the landlords but demand for agricultural products declined, and the lower prices barely covered their costs. Urban workers received higher salaries but they were heavily taxed. Occasionally, the governments tried to fix rural rents at a high level, or to keep urban salaries low, which provoked [[Popular revolt in late-medieval Europe|popular uprisings]], including the {{lang|fr|[[Jacquerie]]}} in France, the [[Peasants' Revolt]] in England, and the [[Ciompi Revolt]] in [[Florence]].{{sfn|Backman|2022|pp=531–542}} Conflicts between ethnic groups became polarised, and local statutes were issued to prohibit intermarriages and limit membership in guilds along ethnic lines.{{refn|group=note|In Bohemia, a mid-14th-century Czech treatise accused the local German artisans of plotting to keep prices high. In 1392, the guild of the bakers in the city of [[Riga]] excluded those who married a non-German women. In the town of [[Limerick]], "No one of Irish blood or birth" could hold offices or be hired as apprentices.{{sfn|Bartlett|1994|pp=236–239}}}}{{sfn|Bartlett|1994|pp=236–242}} Private feuds were almost permanent in politically fragmented regions, and local skirmishes often escalated into full-scale warfare.{{sfn|Vale|2001|p=318}} 

Labour services the peasants owed for their land tenure were often changed into cash rents, providing the landlords with a stable source of income. Landlords joined to extort privileges from their governments but royal administration started to protect the interests of the poor.{{sfn|Keen|1976|pp=234–237}} Serfdom was officially abolished in many places,{{sfn|Keen|1976|p=237}} although in other regions, mainly in Central and Eastern Europe, it was imposed on tenants who had previously been free.{{sfn|Epstein|2009|pp=246–247}} The rise of banking continued, fuelled partly by the crossborder movement of papal revenues with the mediation of large merchant houses. These also loaned money to warring royalty, at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.{{refn|group=note|As happened with the [[Bardi family|Bardi]] and [[Peruzzi]] firms in the 1340s when King [[Edward III of England]] repudiated their loans to him.{{sfn|Keen|1976|p=238}}}}{{sfn|Keen|1976|pp=237–239}}

The Jewish communities were permanently expelled from France, and at least provisionally from most German cities and principalities. In contrast, the Hungarian and Polish rulers encouraged the Jewish moneylenders' immigration.{{sfn|Chazan|2006|pp=153, 198–208}} [[Massacre of 1391|Massive pogroms]] led to the mass conversion of Spanish Jewry in 1391. As the "[[New Christian]]s" were suspected of heresy, the [[Spanish Inquisition]] was established to inspect their faith. The Jews who refused to convert were exiled [[Alhambra Decree|from Spain]] in 1492, and [[Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal|from Portugal]] in 1497. Most Spanish Jews left for [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|the Ottoman Empire]].{{sfn|Chazan|2006|pp=105–114}}{{sfn|Swanson|2021|p=103}}
Description	What you type	What you get
Italic	''Italic text''	Italic text
Bold	'''Bold text'''	Bold text
Bold & italic	'''''Bold & italic text'''''	*Bold & italic text*
Description	What you type	What you get
Reference	Page text.<ref>[https://www.example.org/ Link text], additional text.</ref>	Page text.^[1]
Named reference	Page text.<ref name="test">[https://www.example.org/ Link text]</ref>	Page text.^[2]
Additional use of the same reference	Page text.<ref name="test" />	Page text.^[2]
Display references	<references />	↑ Link text, additional text. ↑ Link text