Age of Discovery

==Inland Spanish expeditions (1519–1532)==
Rumors of undiscovered islands northwest of [[Hispaniola]] reached Spain by 1511, ushering King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]]'s interest in forestalling further exploration. While the Portuguese were making huge gains in the Indian Ocean, the Spanish invested in exploring inland in search of gold and other valuable resources. The members of these expeditions, the "[[conquistadors]]", were not soldiers in an army, but more like [[Mercenary|soldiers of fortune]]; they came from a variety of backgrounds including artisans, merchants, clergy, lawyers, lesser nobility and a few freed slaves. They usually supplied their own equipment or were extended credit to purchase it in exchange for a share in profits. They usually had no professional military training, but a number of them had previous experience on other expeditions.<ref>[[#U.C. 2009|U.C. 2009]], web</ref>

On the mainland of the Americas, the Spanish encountered indigenous empires that were as large and populous as those in Europe. Through relatively small expeditions of ''conquistadors'', several alliances were established with local [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous people]]. Once sources of wealth were found and the Spanish [[sovereignty]] was established, the crown focused on the replication of Spanish institutions of state and church in America. An early key element was the so-called "spiritual conquest" of indigenous people through Christian evangelization. The initial economy of the newly conquered lands was based on receiving tribute goods and forced labor of the indigenous people through an arrangement with Spanish conquistadors called the ''[[encomienda]]''. Once vast deposits of silver were discovered, not only the colonial economies of Mexico and Peru were transformed, but so too was the economy of Spain. Bolstered by global trade networks that included high value crops from the Americas and export of silver, its strong economy helped Spain become a great world power.

During this time, [[pandemic]]s of European disease such as [[smallpox]] decimated the indigenous populations.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Adetunji |first1=Jo |title=How smallpox devastated the Aztecs – and helped Spain conquer an American civilization 500 years ago |url=https://theconversation.com/how-smallpox-devastated-the-aztecs-and-helped-spain-conquer-an-american-civilization-500-years-ago-111579 |website=The Conversation |access-date=April 16, 2024 |date=February 19, 2019}}</ref>

In 1512, to reward [[Juan Ponce de León]] for exploring [[Puerto Rico]] in 1508, king Ferdinand urged him to seek these new lands. He would become governor of discovered lands, but was to finance himself all exploration.<ref>[[#Lawson 2007|Lawson 2007]], pp. 84–88.</ref> With three ships and about 200 men, Léon set out from Puerto Rico in March 1513. In April they sighted land and named it ''[[Florida|La Florida]]''—because it was [[Easter]] (Florida) season—believing it was an island, becoming credited as the first European to land in the continent. The arrival location has been disputed between [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]],<ref>[[#Lawson 2007|Lawson 2007]], pp. 29–32.</ref> [[Ponce de León Inlet]] and [[Melbourne Beach, Florida|Melbourne Beach]]. They headed south for further exploration and on April 8 encountered a current so strong that it pushed them backwards: this was the first encounter with the [[Gulf Stream]] that would soon become the primary route for eastbound ships leaving the Spanish Indies bound for Europe.<ref>[[#Weddle 1985|Weddle 1985]], p. 42.</ref> They explored down the coast reaching [[Biscayne Bay]], [[Dry Tortugas]] and then sailing southwest in an attempt to circle [[Cuba]] to return, reaching [[Grand Bahama]] on July.

===Cortés' Mexico and the Aztec Empire===
{{main|Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire}}
{{See also|Spanish conquest of Yucatán|Spanish conquest of Guatemala}}
[[File:Ruta de Cortés.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Route of Cortés' inland progress 1519–1521]]
In 1517, [[Cuba]]'s governor [[Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar]] commissioned a fleet under the command of [[Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (Yucatán conquistador)|Hernández de Córdoba]] to explore the [[Yucatán peninsula]]. They reached the coast where [[Mayans]] invited them to land. They were attacked at night and only a remnant of the crew returned. Velázquez then commissioned another expedition led by his nephew [[Juan de Grijalva]], who sailed south along the coast to [[Tabasco]], part of the Aztec empire.

In 1518, Velázquez gave the mayor of the capital of Cuba, [[Hernán Cortés]], the command of an expedition to secure the interior of Mexico but, due to an old gripe between them, revoked the charter. In February 1519, Cortés went ahead anyway, in an act of open mutiny. With about 11 ships, 500 men, 13 horses and a small number of cannons he landed in Yucatán, in [[Mayan civilization|Mayan]] territory,<ref name="Grunberg 2007">[[#Grunberg 2007|Grunberg 2007]], magazine</ref> claiming the land for the Spanish crown. From [[Trinidad]] he proceeded to [[Tabasco]] and won a battle against the natives. Among the vanquished was Marina ([[La Malinche]]), his future mistress, who knew both (Aztec) [[Nahuatl language]] and Maya, becoming a valuable interpreter and counsellor. Cortés learned about the wealthy [[Aztec Empire]] through [[La Malinche]],

In July, his men took over [[Veracruz]] and he placed himself under direct orders of new king [[Charles I of Spain]].<ref name="Grunberg 2007"/> There Cortés asked for a meeting with Aztec Emperor [[Montezuma II]], who repeatedly refused. They headed to [[Tenochtitlan]] and on the way made alliances with several tribes. In October, accompanied by about 3,000 [[Tlaxcaltec]] they marched to [[Cholula (Mesoamerican site)|Cholula]], the second largest city in central Mexico. Either to instill fear upon the Aztecs waiting for him or (as he later claimed) wishing to make an example when he feared native treachery, they massacred thousands of unarmed members of the nobility gathered at the central plaza and partially burned the city.

[[File:Tenochtitlan y Golfo de Mexico 1524.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|left|Map of the island city [[Tenochtitlán]] and Mexico gulf made by one of Cortés' men, 1524, [[Newberry Library]], Chicago]]
Arriving in Tenochtitlan with a large army, on November 8 they were peacefully received by Moctezuma II, who deliberately let Cortés enter the heart of the Aztec Empire, hoping to know them better to crush them later.<ref name="Grunberg 2007"/> The emperor gave them lavish gifts in gold which enticed them to plunder vast amounts. In his letters to King Charles, Cortés claimed to have learned then that he was considered by the Aztecs to be either an emissary of the feathered serpent god [[Quetzalcoatl]] or Quetzalcoatl himself – a belief contested by a few modern historians.<ref>[[#Restall 2004|Restall 2004]], pp. 659–87.</ref> But he soon learned that his men on the coast had been attacked, and decided to hostage Moctezuma in his palace, demanding a ransom as tribute to King Charles.

Meanwhile, Velasquez sent another expedition, led by [[Pánfilo de Narváez]], to oppose Cortès, arriving in Mexico in April 1520 with 1,100 men.<ref name="Grunberg 2007"/> Cortés left 200 men in Tenochtitlan and took the rest to confront Narvaez, whom he overcame, convincing his men to join him. In Tenochtitlán one of Cortés's lieutenants committed a [[massacre in the Great Temple]], triggering local rebellion. Cortés speedily returned, attempting the support of Moctezuma but the Aztec emperor was killed, possibly stoned by his subjects.<ref>[[#Castillo 1963|Castillo 1963]], p. 294.</ref> The Spanish fled for the Tlaxcaltec during the ''[[La Noche Triste|Noche Triste]]'', where they managed a narrow escape while their back guard was massacred. Much of the treasure looted was lost during this panicked escape.<ref name="Grunberg 2007"/> After [[Battle of Otumba|a battle in Otumba]] they reached Tlaxcala, having lost 870 men.<ref name="Grunberg 2007"/> Having prevailed with the assistance of allies and reinforcements from [[Cuba]], Cortés [[Fall of Tenochtitlan|besieged Tenochtitlán]] and captured its ruler [[Cuauhtémoc]] in August 1521. As the Aztec Empire ended he claimed the city for Spain, renaming it Mexico City.

===Pizarro's Peru and the Inca Empire===
{{main|Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire}}
[[File:Conquest peru 1531 edited.png|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Francisco Pizarro]]'s route of exploration during the conquest of [[Peru]] (1531–1533)]]

A first attempt to explore western South America was undertaken in 1522 by [[Pascual de Andagoya]]. Native South Americans told him about a gold-rich territory on a river called Pirú. Having reached [[San Juan River (Colombia)]], Andagoya fell ill and returned to [[Panama]], where he spread news about "Pirú" as the legendary [[El Dorado]]. These, along with the accounts of success of [[Hernán Cortés]], caught the attention of Pizarro.

[[Francisco Pizarro]] had accompanied [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa|Balboa]] in the crossing of the [[Isthmus of Panama]]. In 1524 he formed a partnership with priest [[Hernando de Luque]] and soldier [[Diego de Almagro]] to explore the south, agreeing to divide the profits. They dubbed the enterprise the "''Empresa del Levante''": Pizarro would command, Almagro would provide military and food supplies, and Luque would be in charge of finances and additional provisions.

On 13 September 1524, the first of three expeditions set out to conquer [[Peru]] with 80 men and 40 horses. The venture failed, halting in Colombia due to bad weather, hunger, and conflicts with locals; Almagro lost an eye. Their route was marked by ''[[Puerto Deseado|Puerto deseado]]'' (desired port), ''[[Puerto del Hambre|Puerto del hambre]]'' (port of hunger), and ''Puerto quemado'' (burned port). Two years later, a second expedition began with reluctant permission from the Governor of Panama. In August 1526, they departed with two ships, 160 men, and horses. Upon reaching the San Juan River, Pizarro explored swampy coasts, while Almagro sought reinforcements. Pizarro's pilot, sailing south and crossing the equator, captured a raft from [[Tumbes Region|Tumbes]]. To his surprise, the raft carried coveted textiles, ceramics, gold, silver, and emeralds, becoming the expedition's main focus. Almagro later joined with reinforcements, and despite challenging conditions, they reached [[Atacames]], where a sizable native population under [[Inca]] rule was observed, though they did not land.

Pizarro, safe near the coast, sent Almagro and Luque for reinforcements with proof if the [[El Dorado|rumoured gold]]. The new governor rejected a third expedition, ordering everyone back to Panama. Almagro and Luque seized the chance to rejoin Pizarro. At ''Isla de Gallo'', Pizarro drew a line, presenting the choice between Peru's riches and Panama's poverty. Thirteen men, The Famous Thirteen, stayed and headed to ''La Isla Gorgona'', staying seven months until provisions arrived.

They sailed south and by April 1528, reached northwestern Peru's [[Tumbes Region]], warmly received by the ''Tumpis''. Pizarro's men reported incredible riches, [[llama]] sightings, and the natives named them "Children of the Sun" for their fair complexion and brilliant armor. They decided to return to Panama to prepare a final expedition, sailing south through named territories like Cabo Blanco, port of Payta, Sechura, Punta de Aguja, Santa Cruz, and [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]], reaching the ninth degree south.

In the spring of 1528 Pizarro sailed for Spain, where he had an interview with king [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I]]. The king heard of his expeditions in lands rich in gold and silver and promised to support him. The ''Capitulación de Toledo''<ref>[[#Cervantes web|Cervantes web]], original text.</ref> authorized Pizarro to proceed with the [[Spanish conquest of Peru|conquest of Peru]]. Pizarro was then able to convince many friends and relatives to join: his brothers [[Hernándo Pizarro]], [[Juan Pizarro (conquistador)|Juan Pizarro]], [[Gonzalo Pizarro]] and also [[Francisco de Orellana]], who would later explore the [[Amazon River]], as well as his cousin [[Pedro Pizarro]].

Pizarro's third and final expedition left Panama for Peru on 27 December 1530. With three ships and one hundred and eighty men they landed near Ecuador and sailed to Tumbes, finding the place destroyed. They entered the interior and established the first Spanish settlement in [[Peru]], [[San Miguel de Piura]]. One of the men returned with an Incan envoy and an invitation for a meeting. Since the last meeting, the Inca had begun a [[Inca Civil War|civil war]] and [[Atahualpa]] had been resting in northern Peru following the defeat of his brother [[Huáscar]]. After marching for two months, they approached Atahualpa. He refused the Spanish, saying he would be "no man's tributary". There were fewer than 200 Spanish to his 80,000 soldiers, but Pizarro attacked and won the Incan army in the [[Battle of Cajamarca]], taking Atahualpa captive at the so-called [[The Ransom Room|ransom room]]. Despite fulfilling his promise of filling one room with gold and two with silver, he was convicted for killing his brother and plotting against Pizarro, and was executed.

In 1533, Pizarro invaded [[Cusco|Cuzco]] with indigenous troops and wrote to King Charles I: "''This city is the greatest and the finest ever seen in this country or anywhere in the Indies&nbsp;... it is so beautiful and has such fine buildings that it would be remarkable even in Spain.''" After the Spanish had sealed the [[Spanish conquest of Peru|conquest of Peru]], [[Jauja]] in fertile [[Mantaro Valley]] was established as Peru's provisional capital, but it was too far up in the mountains, and Pizarro founded the city of [[Lima]] on 18 January 1535, which Pizarro considered one of the most important acts in his life.