Crucifixion of Jesus

==Theological significance==
[[File:Retable de l'Agneau mystique (10).jpg|thumb|''Adoration of the Mystic Lamb'' (detail of the [[Ghent Altarpiece]], [[Jan van Eyck]], c. 1432). Christ is represented as the sacrificial [[Lamb of God]].]]
Christians believe that  Jesus's death was instrumental in restoring humankind to [[Salvation in Christianity|relationship with God]].<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVJXcOVY2UgC |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church |date=1994 |publisher=Urbi et Orbi Communications |isbn=978-1-884660-01-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Hans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l3rDtUQRdKAC |title=True Faith in the True God: An Introduction to Luther's Life and Thought |date=1996 |publisher=Augsburg |isbn=978-1-4514-0930-7 |language=en}}</ref> Christians believe that through  Jesus's death and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]<ref>{{cite book | last1= Benedict XVI |first1=Pope |title= Principles of Catholic Theology: Building Stones for a Fundamental Theology |location=San Francisco |publisher= Ignatius Press |year=1987 | pages=17–18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Calvin |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UU9Ygc_c5woC |title=Institutes of the Christian Religion |date=1921 |publisher=Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work |language=en}}</ref> people are reunited with God and receive new joy and power in this life as well as eternal life. Thus the crucifixion of Jesus along with his resurrection restores access to a vibrant experience of God's presence, [[Love of God in Christianity|love]] and [[Grace in Christianity|grace]] as well as the confidence of [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kempis |first=Thomas a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=13QRjJjhEqkC |title=The Inner Life |date=2005-09-06 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1-101-65142-1 |language=en}}</ref>

===Christology===
{{See also|Lamb of God}}
{{Christology}}
The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus provide a rich background for [[Christology|Christological]] analysis, from the canonical Gospels to the [[Pauline epistles]].<ref>''Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology'' by Mark Allan Powell and David R. Bauer 1999 {{ISBN|0-664-25752-6}} p. 106</ref> Christians believe  Jesus's suffering was foretold in the Old Testament, such as in [[Psalm 22]], and [[Isaiah 53]] prophecy of the [[suffering servant]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter=The Passion |last1=Cross |first1=Frank L. |last2=Livingstone |first2=Elizabeth A. |title=The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005}}</ref>

In [[Johannine]] "agent Christology" the submission of Jesus to crucifixion is a sacrifice made as an agent of God or servant of God, for the sake of eventual victory.<ref name=Cullmann >''The Christology of the New Testamen''t by Oscar Cullmann 1959 {{ISBN|0-664-24351-7}} p. 79</ref><ref>''The Johannine exegesis of God'' by Daniel Rathnakara Sadananda 2005 {{ISBN|3-11-018248-3}} p. 281</ref> This builds on the [[salvation in Christianity|salvific]] theme of the [[Gospel of John]] which begins in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#1:29|John 1:29]] with [[John the Baptist]]'s proclamation: "The Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world".<ref name=Pollard >''Johannine Christology'' and the Early Church by T. E. Pollard 2005 {{ISBN|0-521-01868-4}} p. 21</ref><ref name=Hengel371 >''Studies in Early Christology'' by Martin Hengel 2004 {{ISBN|0-567-04280-4}} p. 371</ref>

A central element in the Christology presented in the [[Acts of the Apostles]] is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan".<ref name=Matera67 >''New Testament christology'' by Frank J. Matera 1999 {{ISBN|0-664-25694-5}} p. 67</ref> In this view, as in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#2:23|Acts 2:23]], the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfillment of the plan of God.<ref name=Matera67 /><ref>''The speeches in Acts: their content, context, and concerns'' by Marion L. Soards 1994 {{ISBN|0-664-25221-4}} p. 34</ref>

Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#6:12|Galatians 6:12]] may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels.<ref name=Schwarz132 >''Christology'' by Hans Schwarz 1998 {{ISBN|0-8028-4463-4}} pp.&nbsp;132–134</ref> For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant [[eschatological]] consequences, as in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#2:8|1 Corinthians 2:8]].<ref name=Schwarz132 /> In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Philippians#2:8|Philippians 2:8]]) died "at the right time" ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Romans#4:25|Romans 4:25]]) based on the plan of God.<ref name=Schwarz132 /> For Paul the "power of the cross" is not separable from the resurrection of Jesus.<ref name=Schwarz132 /> Furthermore, Paul highlighted the idea that Jesus on the cross defeated the spiritual forces of evil "''Kosmokrator''", literally 'the rulers of this world' (used in plural in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Ephesians#6:12|Ephesians 6:12]]), thus highlighting the idea of victory of light over darkness, or good over evil, through Christ.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://lightfromthecross.com/ |title=War Between Good and Evil – Light from the Cross |access-date=October 28, 2022 |archive-date=October 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028160340/https://lightfromthecross.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Belief in the redemptive nature of  Jesus's death predates the Pauline letters, to the earliest days of [[Christianity]] and the [[First Christian church|Jerusalem church]].<ref>''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'' by Larry W. Hurtado (2005) {{ISBN|0-8028-3167-2}} pp.&nbsp;130–133</ref> The [[Nicene Creed]]'s statement that "for our sake he was crucified" is a reflection of this core belief's formalization in the fourth century.<ref name=Harris12>''Christian Theology'' by J. Glyndwr Harris (2002) {{ISBN|1-902210-22-0}} pp.&nbsp;12–15</ref>

[[John Calvin]] supported the "agent of God" Christology and argued that in his trial in [[Pilate's Court]] Jesus could have successfully argued for his innocence, but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father.<ref name=CalvinC >''Calvin's Christology'' by Stephen Edmondson 2004 {{ISBN|0-521-54154-9}} p. 91</ref><ref>''The Reading and Preaching of the Scriptures'' by [[Hughes Oliphant Old]] 2002 {{ISBN|0-8028-4775-7}} p. 125</ref> This Christological theme continued into the 20th century, both in the [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] and Western Christianity. In Eastern Christianity, [[Sergei Bulgakov]] argued, the crucifixion of Jesus was "[[Pre-existence of Christ|pre-eternally]]" determined by the Father before the creation of the world, to redeem humanity from the disgrace caused by [[Fall of man|the fall of Adam]].<ref name=SBulgakov >''The Lamb of God'' by Sergei Bulgakov 2008 {{ISBN|0-8028-2779-9}} p. 129</ref> In Western Christianity, [[Karl Rahner]] elaborated on the analogy that the blood of the [[Lamb of God]] (and the water from the side of Jesus) shed at the crucifixion had a cleansing nature, similar to [[Baptism in Christianity|baptismal water]].<ref>''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by Karl Rahner 2004 {{ISBN|0-86012-006-6}} p. 74</ref>

=== Atonement ===
[[File:Niccolò Frangipane Penitent.jpg|thumb|200px|''Penitent'' by [[Niccolò Frangipane]], 1574]]
Jesus's death and resurrection underpin a variety of theological [[soteriology#Christianity|interpretations]] as to how salvation is granted to humanity. These interpretations vary widely in how much emphasis they place on the death and resurrection as compared to  Jesus's words.<ref>For example, see {{Bibleref2|Matthew|6:14–15}}. See also [[Sermon on the Mount]]</ref> According to the [[substitutionary atonement]] view,  Jesus's death is of central importance, and Jesus willingly sacrificed himself after his resurrection as an act of perfect obedience as a sacrifice of love which pleased God.<ref name="Atonement">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Doctrine of the Atonement |encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02055a.htm |access-date=May 8, 2008 |archive-date=April 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415083228/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02055a.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> By contrast the [[moral influence theory of atonement]] focuses much more on the moral content of  Jesus's teaching, and sees  Jesus's death as a [[martyr]]dom.<ref>A. J. Wallace, R. D. Rusk ''Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation'', (New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011) {{ISBN|978-1-4563-8980-2}}</ref> Since the [[Middle Ages]] there has been conflict between these two views within Western Christianity. [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Protestants]] typically hold a substitutionary view and in particular hold to the theory of [[penal substitution]]. [[Liberal Protestant]]s typically reject substitutionary atonement and hold to the [[moral influence theory of atonement]]. Both views are popular within the [[Roman Catholic Church]], with the [[Satisfaction theory of atonement|satisfaction]] doctrine incorporated into the idea of [[penance]].<ref name="Atonement"/>

In the Roman Catholic tradition this view of atonement is balanced by the duty of Roman Catholics to perform [[Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ]]<ref name="Encyclopedia">{{cite book |author=Ball, Ann |year=2003 |title=Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices |isbn=0-87973-910-X |publisher=Our Sunday Visitor |location=Huntington, Ind.}}</ref> which in the encyclical ''[[Miserentissimus Redemptor]]'' of [[Pope Pius XI]] were defined as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury" with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.<ref>{{cite web|title=''Miserentissimus Redemptor'' |publisher=Encyclical of Pope Pius XI |url= https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_08051928_miserentissimus-redemptor_en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140812031528/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_08051928_miserentissimus-redemptor_en.html |archive-date=August 12, 2014 }}</ref> [[Pope John Paul II]] referred to these [[acts of reparation]] as the "unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified."<ref>{{cite web |title=Vatican archives |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/2000/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_20001021_riparatrici_en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080502234831/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/2000/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_20001021_riparatrici_en.html |archive-date=May 2, 2008 }}</ref>

Among [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians, another common view is [[Christus Victor]].<ref>See [[Christus Victor#Development of the Christus Victor view after Aulén|Development of the Christus Victor view after Aulén]]</ref> This holds that Jesus was sent by God to defeat death and [[Satan]]. Because of his [[Perfection of Christ|perfection]], voluntary death, and resurrection, Jesus defeated Satan and death, and arose victorious. Therefore, humanity was no longer bound in sin, but was free to rejoin God through the repentance of sin and faith in Jesus.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Johnson, Alan F. |author2=Robert E. Webber |title=What Christians Believe: A Biblical and Historical Summary |publisher=Zondervan |year=1993 |pages=261–263}}</ref>

[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] teaches that the crucifixion of Jesus was part of the atonement and a "redeeming ransom" both for the effect of the fall of Adam upon all humankind and "for the personal sins of all who repent, from Adam to the end of the world."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Atonement_of_Jesus_Christ|title=Atonement of Jesus Christ – The Encyclopedia of Mormonism|website=eom.byu.edu|access-date=April 7, 2023|archive-date=March 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307052907/https://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Atonement_of_Jesus_Christ|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Deicide ===
The Catholic Church denounces the idea of [[Jewish deicide]], believing that all sinners are the authors and ministers of  Jesus's crucifixion, and admonishes Christians that their own guilt is greater when they sin with knowledge of Jesus, than when others sin without it.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p122a4p2.htm#598 |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church 598 |access-date=March 9, 2023 |archive-date=March 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312122424/http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p122a4p2.htm#598 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2020-06/nostrae-aetate-opening-the-path-to-interreligious-dialogue.html |title=Vatican News: Nostra aetate: Opening the path to interreligious dialogue |date=June 18, 2020 |access-date=March 9, 2023 |archive-date=March 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309030344/https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2020-06/nostrae-aetate-opening-the-path-to-interreligious-dialogue.html |url-status=live }}</ref>